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Jou
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n
A
p
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li
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d
S
c
ie
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e
s
(
I
JA
A
S
)
V
ol
.
14
, N
o.
4
,
D
e
c
e
m
be
r
20
25
, pp.
1
295
~
13
04
I
S
S
N
:
2252
-
8814
,
D
O
I
:
10.11591/
ij
a
a
s
.
v14.
i
4
.
pp
1
295
-
13
04
1295
Jou
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page
:
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f
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B
S
T
R
A
C
T
A
r
ti
c
le
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is
to
r
y
:
R
e
c
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iv
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d
J
a
n 21, 2025
R
e
vi
s
e
d
O
c
t
10, 2025
A
c
c
e
pt
e
d
N
ov 4, 2025
Electric
bicycles
(e
-
bikes)
have
rapidly
emerged
as
a
sustainable
alte
rnative
to
conventional
modes
of
transportation.
This
study
reviews
the
evo
lution,
technologic
al
advance
ments,
and
environmen
tal
benefits
of
e
-
bikes
t
hrough
comparativ
e
data
analysis
,
survey
results,
and
case
studies
.
The
finding
s
demonstrate
that
the
developments
in
lithium
-
ion
batteries,
light
weight
materials,
and
smart
motor
systems
have
significantly
improved
e
-
bike
performance,
efficiency,
and
affordability.
From
an
environ
mental
per
spective,
e
-
bikes
can
cut
greenhouse
gas
emissions
by
more
tha
n
90%
compared
to
cars,
while
simult
aneously
improvi
ng
urban
air
quali
ty
and
reducing
overall
polluti
on
levels.
Survey
responses
indicate
that
e
-
bik
e
users
often
substitute
short
car
trips,
promoting
sustainable
commuting
be
haviors
and
supporting
public
health.
Despite
these
benefits,
challenges
persist
regarding
insufficient
infrastructure,
inconsist
ent
policy
support,
and
l
imited
battery
recycling
programs.
In
summary,
e
-
bikes
constitute
a
tran
sfor
mative
element
in
sustain
able
urban
mobili
ty
and
climate
change
miti
gation.
Beyond
policy
reforms,
future
work
should
prioritize
renewable
-
p
owered
charging
systems
and
circular
battery
utili
zation
models
to
ensure
e
-
bikes
contribu
te
to
a
more
resilien
t
and
environm
entally
friendly
transpo
rtation
ecosystem
.
K
e
y
w
o
r
d
s
:
E
le
c
tr
ic
bi
c
yc
le
s
E
le
c
tr
ic
m
obi
li
ty
E
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
s
us
ta
in
a
bi
li
ty
G
r
e
e
n c
om
m
ut
in
g
U
r
ba
n t
r
a
ns
por
t
This is an
open
acce
ss artic
le unde
r the
CC BY
-
SA
license.
C
or
r
e
s
pon
di
n
g A
u
th
or
:
R
a
m
a
na
P
il
la
D
e
pa
r
tm
e
nt
of
E
le
c
tr
ic
a
l
a
nd E
le
c
tr
oni
c
s
E
ngi
ne
e
r
in
g
, G
M
R
I
n
s
ti
tu
te
of
T
e
c
hnol
ogy
R
a
ja
m
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532127
, I
ndi
a
E
m
a
il
:
r
a
m
a
na
.pi
ll
a
@
gm
r
it
.e
du.i
n
1.
I
N
T
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N
T
he
r
a
pi
d
ur
ba
ni
z
a
ti
on
a
nd
m
ot
or
iz
a
ti
on
of
our
pl
a
ne
t
ha
v
e
l
e
d
to
pr
e
s
s
in
g
pr
obl
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m
s
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u
c
h
a
s
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ir
pol
lu
ti
on,
tr
a
f
f
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onge
s
ti
on,
r
e
li
a
nc
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on
f
os
s
il
f
ue
ls
,
a
nd
in
c
r
e
a
s
in
g
gr
e
e
nhous
e
ga
s
e
m
is
s
io
ns
.
C
onve
nt
io
na
l
tr
a
ns
por
t
s
ys
te
m
s
a
c
c
ount
f
or
a
lm
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t
14%
of
w
or
ld
w
id
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a
r
bo
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di
oxi
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io
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,
w
hi
c
h
is
a
s
e
r
io
us
r
is
k
to
th
e
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
nd
hum
a
n
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a
lt
h.
T
h
e
r
e
is
a
n
ur
ge
nt
ne
e
d
f
or
e
ne
r
gy
-
e
f
f
ic
ie
nt
a
nd
s
us
ta
in
a
bl
e
m
obi
li
ty
a
lt
e
r
na
ti
ve
s
[
1]
,
[
2]
.
E
le
c
tr
ic
bi
c
yc
le
s
(
e
-
bi
ke
s
)
r
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
a
us
e
f
ul
oppor
tu
ni
ty
,
bot
h
tr
a
di
ti
ona
l
c
yc
li
ng
a
nd
e
le
c
tr
ic
a
s
s
is
ta
n
c
e
.
E
-
bi
ke
s
a
r
e
pr
ope
ll
e
d
by
r
e
c
h
a
r
ge
a
bl
e
b
a
tt
e
r
ie
s
a
nd
e
le
c
tr
ic
m
ot
or
s
,
w
hi
c
h
a
ll
ow
s
r
id
e
r
s
to
tr
a
ve
l
di
s
ta
nc
e
s
th
a
t
a
r
e
not
pos
s
ib
le
u
s
in
g
tr
a
di
ti
ona
l
bi
c
yc
le
s
a
nd
w
it
h
le
s
s
e
f
f
or
t
th
a
n
tr
a
di
ti
ona
l
bi
c
yc
le
s
,
in
c
r
e
a
s
in
g
a
c
c
e
s
s
ib
il
it
y
f
or
ol
de
r
or
di
s
a
bl
e
d
in
di
vi
dua
ls
a
nd
d
a
il
y
e
xc
ur
s
io
ns
[
3]
,
[
4]
.
E
-
bi
ke
s
c
a
n
e
f
f
e
c
ti
ve
ly
m
it
ig
a
te
c
a
r
bon
e
m
is
s
io
ns
,
tr
a
f
f
ic
c
onge
s
ti
on,
a
nd a
c
c
e
s
s
ib
il
it
y w
it
hi
n
ur
ba
n
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
s
[
5]
,
[
6]
.
H
ow
e
ve
r
,
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
S
N
:
2252
-
8814
I
nt
J
A
dv A
ppl
S
c
i
,
V
ol
.
14
, N
o.
4
,
D
e
c
e
m
be
r
20
25
:
1295
-
1304
1296
th
e
r
e
a
r
e
a
ddi
ti
ona
l
ba
r
r
ie
r
s
to
s
uc
c
e
s
s
f
ul
a
dopt
io
n.
U
s
a
bl
e
c
yc
li
ng
in
f
r
a
s
tr
uc
tu
r
e
is
li
m
it
e
d,
c
yc
li
ng
la
ne
s
a
r
e
not
ty
pi
c
a
ll
y
a
va
il
a
bl
e
,
a
nd
c
onge
s
ti
on
de
ve
lo
ps
w
he
r
e
th
e
r
e
m
a
y
not
be
s
pa
c
e
to
pa
r
k
or
s
to
r
e
e
-
bi
ke
s
f
e
w
c
om
m
e
r
c
e
pl
a
c
e
s
ha
ve
e
le
c
tr
ic
s
oc
k
e
ts
to
a
ll
ow
us
e
r
s
to
c
ha
r
ge
th
e
ir
bi
ke
.
T
he
s
e
ba
r
r
ie
r
s
ne
e
d
to
be
a
ddr
e
s
s
e
d
s
o
th
e
s
u
s
ta
in
a
bi
li
ty
pot
e
nt
ia
l
c
a
n
be
f
ul
ly
r
e
a
li
z
e
d
in
e
-
bi
ke
s
a
nd
c
ont
r
ib
ut
in
g
to
s
oc
ie
ty
[
7]
.
O
th
e
r
c
ha
ll
e
nge
s
in
c
lu
de
f
lu
c
tu
a
ti
ng
r
e
gul
a
to
r
y
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
s
,
hi
gh
in
it
ia
l
a
nd
m
a
in
te
na
nc
e
c
os
t
s
,
li
m
it
e
d
publ
ic
a
w
a
r
e
ne
s
s
,
a
nd
in
e
f
f
e
c
ti
ve
r
e
c
yc
li
ng
s
y
s
te
m
s
[
8]
,
[
9]
.
I
n
a
ddi
ti
on,
publ
ic
t
r
a
ns
por
ta
ti
on
s
ys
te
m
s
in
de
ve
lo
pi
ng
c
ount
r
ie
s
of
te
n
f
a
il
to
m
e
e
t
th
e
ne
e
ds
of
pot
e
nt
ia
l
us
e
r
s
[
10]
.
A
lt
hough
s
om
e
gove
r
nm
e
nt
s
ha
ve
in
tr
oduc
e
d
s
ubs
id
ie
s
a
nd
in
c
e
nt
iv
e
s
f
or
e
-
bi
ke
a
dopt
io
n,
th
e
s
e
pr
ogr
a
m
s
f
r
e
que
nt
ly
ove
r
lo
ok
c
r
it
ic
a
l
a
s
pe
c
ts
s
uc
h
a
s
c
ha
r
gi
ng
in
f
r
a
s
tr
uc
tu
r
e
,
m
a
in
te
na
nc
e
s
uppor
t,
a
nd
pr
oduc
t
li
f
e
c
yc
le
m
a
na
ge
m
e
nt
[
11]
.
M
or
e
ove
r
,
c
e
r
ta
in
m
a
nuf
a
c
tu
r
e
r
s
c
ont
in
ue
to
pr
oduc
e
a
nd
di
s
pos
e
of
e
-
bi
ke
ba
tt
e
r
ie
s
in
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
ll
y
ha
r
m
f
u
l
w
a
ys
[
12]
,
w
hi
le
f
r
a
gm
e
nt
e
d
pol
ic
y
f
r
a
m
e
w
or
ks
in
de
v
e
lo
pi
ng
r
e
gi
o
ns
m
a
ke
it
m
or
e
di
f
f
ic
ul
t
to
e
s
ta
bl
is
h
e
f
f
e
c
ti
ve
s
ys
te
m
s
[
13]
.
T
he
s
tr
e
ngt
h
of
gove
r
nm
e
nt
pol
ic
ie
s
a
nd
th
e
l
e
ve
l
of
pol
it
ic
a
l
s
uppor
t
w
il
l
ul
ti
m
a
te
ly
de
te
r
m
in
e
th
e
f
ut
ur
e
e
vol
ut
io
n,
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
be
ne
f
it
s
,
a
nd
a
c
c
e
pt
a
nc
e
o
f
e
-
bi
ke
s
,
s
ha
pi
ng
th
e
di
r
e
c
ti
on
of
s
u
s
ta
in
a
bl
e
ur
ba
n m
obi
li
ty
.
R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
on
e
-
bi
k
e
s
ha
s
e
v
ol
ve
d
a
c
r
os
s
te
c
h
no
lo
g
ic
a
l,
e
nvi
r
on
m
e
n
ta
l
,
s
oc
ia
l,
a
nd
po
li
c
y
di
m
e
ns
i
ons
,
h
ig
h
li
gh
ti
ng
th
e
i
r
g
r
ow
in
g
i
m
p
or
ta
n
c
e
i
n
s
us
ta
i
na
bl
e
tr
a
ns
p
or
ta
ti
on.
E
a
r
ly
s
tu
d
ie
s
doc
um
e
nt
e
d
th
e
p
r
o
gr
e
s
s
io
n
of
e
-
b
ik
e
d
e
s
ig
n,
f
r
om
ba
s
ic
l
e
a
d
-
a
c
i
d
ba
tt
e
r
y
m
ode
ls
t
o
m
od
e
r
n
li
gh
twe
ig
h
t
a
nd
in
te
l
li
ge
n
t
e
le
c
t
r
ic
c
yc
le
s
[
1
]
.
E
-
bi
ke
s
now
c
o
m
pe
te
di
r
e
c
tl
y
w
i
th
c
on
ve
n
ti
o
na
l
t
r
a
ns
po
r
t
m
od
e
s
b
y
of
f
e
r
i
ng
f
le
xi
b
il
it
y,
e
ne
r
gy
e
f
f
ic
ie
nc
y,
a
nd
h
e
a
l
th
be
ne
f
it
s
[
2
]
.
T
e
c
h
no
lo
g
ic
a
l
a
dv
a
nc
e
m
e
nt
s
ha
ve
be
e
n
a
m
a
jo
r
f
a
c
t
or
i
n
th
e
ir
in
c
r
e
a
s
e
d
a
do
pt
io
n.
R
e
s
e
a
r
c
he
r
s
ha
ve
in
t
r
o
duc
e
d
in
no
va
t
iv
e
de
s
ig
ns
,
in
c
lu
d
in
g
h
yb
r
i
d
s
ol
a
r
-
p
ow
e
r
e
d
a
nd
a
ut
o
-
ge
a
r
e
d
m
o
de
ls
,
to
e
nh
a
nc
e
c
os
t
e
f
f
ic
ie
nc
y
a
nd
pe
r
f
or
m
a
nc
e
[
3
]
.
M
a
c
h
in
e
le
a
r
ni
ng
m
e
t
ho
ds
ha
ve
be
e
n
a
ppl
ie
d
to
p
r
e
d
ic
t
a
do
pt
io
n
t
r
e
n
ds
a
nd
op
ti
m
iz
e
s
ys
t
e
m
d
e
s
ig
n
f
or
di
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
c
a
te
go
r
ie
s
o
f
us
e
r
s
[
4
]
.
S
t
udi
e
s
on
m
o
to
r
d
r
i
ve
c
on
f
i
gu
r
a
ti
ons
ha
v
e
e
m
p
ha
s
iz
e
d
t
he
im
po
r
ta
nc
e
o
f
c
on
tr
ol
le
r
de
s
i
gn,
to
r
qu
e
m
a
na
ge
m
e
nt
,
a
n
d
r
e
ge
ne
r
a
t
iv
e
b
r
a
k
in
g
s
ys
te
m
s
in
im
p
r
ovi
ng
e
-
b
ik
e
pe
r
f
or
m
a
n
c
e
[
5
]
.
E
n
vi
r
o
nm
e
nt
a
l
a
s
s
e
s
s
m
e
n
ts
of
e
-
b
ik
e
-
s
h
a
r
in
g
s
ys
te
m
s
f
u
r
th
e
r
c
on
f
ir
m
th
e
ir
p
ot
e
nt
ia
l
t
o
r
e
duc
e
tr
a
ns
p
or
ta
t
io
n
-
r
e
la
te
d
e
m
is
s
io
ns
a
n
d
ur
ba
n
c
o
nge
s
ti
on
[
6
]
.
F
r
om
a
us
a
bi
li
ty
a
nd
pol
ic
y
s
ta
ndpoint
,
r
e
c
e
nt
s
tu
di
e
s
ha
ve
a
ls
o
unde
r
li
ne
d
th
e
r
ol
e
of
onl
in
e
le
a
r
ni
ng
pl
a
tf
or
m
s
a
nd
di
gi
ta
l
to
ol
s
in
s
pr
e
a
di
ng
a
w
a
r
e
ne
s
s
a
nd
s
uppor
ti
ng
pol
ic
y
f
or
m
ul
a
ti
on
[
7]
.
H
e
a
lt
h
-
r
e
la
te
d
r
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
ha
s
s
how
n
a
n
in
c
r
e
a
s
e
in
pe
di
a
tr
ic
e
-
bi
ke
in
ju
r
ie
s
,
w
hi
c
h
hi
ghl
ig
ht
s
th
e
ne
e
d
f
or
im
pr
ove
d
s
a
f
e
ty
e
duc
a
ti
on
a
nd
be
tt
e
r
de
s
ig
n
s
ta
nda
r
ds
[
8]
.
O
n
th
e
ot
he
r
ha
nd,
s
ys
te
m
a
ti
c
r
e
vi
e
w
s
de
m
ons
tr
a
te
th
a
t
e
-
c
yc
li
ng
pr
ovi
de
s
s
ubs
ta
nt
ia
l
c
a
r
di
ova
s
c
ul
a
r
a
nd
phys
ic
a
l
h
e
a
lt
h
be
ne
f
it
s
,
he
lp
in
g
br
id
ge
th
e
ga
p
be
twe
e
n
s
e
d
e
nt
a
r
y
li
f
e
s
ty
le
s
a
nd
a
c
ti
ve
m
obi
li
ty
[
9]
.
T
he
in
te
gr
a
ti
on
of
I
oT
te
c
hnol
ogi
e
s
e
na
bl
e
s
r
e
a
l
-
ti
m
e
m
oni
to
r
in
g
a
nd
in
te
ll
ig
e
nt
r
out
e
pl
a
nni
ng,
th
e
r
e
by
im
pr
ovi
ng
bot
h
s
a
f
e
ty
a
nd
ove
r
a
ll
us
e
r
e
xpe
r
ie
nc
e
[
10]
.
L
ong
-
te
r
m
a
na
ly
s
e
s
of
e
-
bi
ke
-
s
ha
r
in
g
pr
ogr
a
m
s
id
e
nt
if
y
a
c
c
e
s
s
ib
il
it
y,
c
onve
ni
e
n
c
e
,
a
nd
a
f
f
or
da
bi
li
ty
a
s
ke
y f
a
c
to
r
s
t
ha
t
in
f
lu
e
nc
e
us
e
r
r
e
te
nt
io
n [
11]
. D
a
ta
a
na
ly
ti
c
s
t
ool
s
ha
ve
a
l
s
o be
e
n e
m
pl
oye
d t
o
e
s
ti
m
a
te
i
m
por
ta
nt
pe
r
f
or
m
a
nc
e
pa
r
a
m
e
te
r
s
s
uc
h a
s
e
ne
r
gy c
on
s
um
pt
io
n a
nd ba
tt
e
r
y l
oa
d f
or
i
ndi
vi
dua
l
r
id
e
r
s
[
12]
.
I
ndus
tr
y
r
e
por
ts
s
how
th
a
t
a
dva
nc
e
m
e
nt
s
in
e
-
m
ot
or
c
yc
l
e
de
s
ig
n
of
te
n
c
ont
r
ib
ut
e
to
im
pr
ove
m
e
nt
s
in
c
ons
um
e
r
-
gr
a
de
e
-
bi
ke
s
[
13]
.
C
om
pa
r
a
ti
ve
li
f
e
c
y
c
le
a
na
l
ys
e
s
d
e
m
ons
tr
a
te
th
a
t
e
-
bi
ke
s
out
pe
r
f
or
m
c
onve
nt
io
na
l
ve
hi
c
le
s
in
bot
h
c
a
r
bon
e
m
i
s
s
io
ns
a
nd
c
o
s
t
pe
r
k
il
om
e
te
r
[
14]
.
T
he
in
te
gr
a
ti
on
of
e
-
bi
ke
s
w
it
h
s
m
a
r
t
gr
id
s
a
nd t
r
a
ns
por
t
s
ys
te
m
s
pr
om
ot
e
s
a
da
pt
iv
e
a
nd
s
us
ta
i
na
bl
e
m
obi
li
ty
[
15]
.
A
dva
nc
e
d
ba
tt
e
r
y
m
a
na
ge
m
e
nt
s
ys
te
m
s
im
pr
ove
s
a
f
e
ty
a
nd
e
xt
e
nd
ba
tt
e
r
y
li
f
e
s
pa
n
[
16]
,
w
hi
le
hi
gh
-
pow
e
r
c
ha
r
gi
ng
s
ys
te
m
s
a
dd
c
onve
ni
e
nc
e
f
or
lo
nge
r
tr
ip
s
[
17]
.
R
e
c
e
nt
s
tu
di
e
s
ha
ve
a
ls
o
e
xpl
or
e
d
ve
hi
c
le
-
to
-
gr
id
a
nd
bi
di
r
e
c
ti
ona
l
e
ne
r
gy
f
lo
w
a
ppl
ic
a
ti
ons
,
po
s
it
io
ni
ng
e
-
bi
ke
s
a
s
m
or
e
th
a
n
ju
s
t
m
ode
s
of
tr
a
ns
por
t
a
nd
hi
ghl
ig
ht
in
g
th
e
ir
pot
e
nt
ia
l
a
s
m
obi
le
e
ne
r
gy
s
to
r
a
ge
de
vi
c
e
s
[
18]
.
S
oc
io
lo
gi
c
a
l
r
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
e
m
pha
s
iz
e
s
t
he
c
onne
c
ti
on
s
be
twe
e
n
e
-
bi
ke
us
e
, i
de
nt
it
y, s
u
s
ta
i
na
bi
li
ty
a
w
a
r
e
ne
s
s
,
a
nd s
oc
ia
l
in
c
lu
s
iv
it
y
[
19]
.
O
th
e
r
s
tu
di
e
s
f
oc
us
on
m
odul
a
r
,
r
e
c
yc
l
a
bl
e
,
a
nd
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
ll
y
c
ons
c
io
us
de
s
ig
ns
[
20]
,
a
s
w
e
ll
a
s
on
us
e
r
pr
e
f
e
r
e
nc
e
s
s
ha
pe
d
by
ur
ba
n
c
onge
s
ti
on,
li
m
it
e
d
publ
ic
tr
a
ns
it
,
a
nd
th
e
de
s
ir
e
f
or
r
e
ne
w
a
bl
e
in
te
gr
a
ti
on
[
21]
,
[
22]
.
B
e
twe
e
n
2020
a
nd
2025,
r
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
on e
-
bi
ke
s
us
ta
in
a
bi
li
ty
ha
s
e
xpa
nd
e
d
s
ig
ni
f
ic
a
nt
ly
. T
he
de
ve
lo
pm
e
nt
of
hi
gh
-
c
a
pa
c
it
y
ba
tt
e
r
ie
s
a
nd
a
dva
nc
e
d
r
e
c
yc
li
ng
te
c
hnol
ogi
e
s
ha
s
f
ur
th
e
r
r
e
duc
e
d
li
f
e
c
yc
le
e
m
is
s
io
ns
[
23]
.
D
a
ta
f
r
om
E
ur
ope
a
nd
L
a
ti
n
A
m
e
r
ic
a
s
how
th
a
t
e
-
bi
ke
us
e
r
s
c
a
n
r
e
duc
e
a
nnua
l
c
a
r
bon
di
oxi
de
e
m
is
s
io
ns
by
150
to
300
ki
lo
gr
a
m
s
pe
r
pe
r
s
on.
C
a
s
e
s
tu
di
e
s
f
ur
th
e
r
r
e
ve
a
l
th
a
t
gove
r
nm
e
nt
in
c
e
nt
iv
e
s
a
nd
s
ubs
id
ie
s
s
ig
ni
f
ic
a
nt
ly
in
f
lu
e
nc
e
th
e
a
dopt
io
n
of
e
-
bi
ke
s
[
24]
.
L
if
e
c
yc
le
c
om
pa
r
is
ons
r
e
ve
a
l
th
a
t
e
-
bi
ke
s
pr
oduc
e
60
to
80
%
le
s
s
e
m
i
s
s
io
ns
pe
r
ki
lo
m
e
te
r
th
a
n
e
-
s
c
oot
e
r
s
o
r
s
ha
r
e
d
m
ope
ds
,
c
onf
ir
m
in
g
th
e
ir
s
upe
r
io
r
pe
r
f
or
m
a
nc
e
w
it
hi
n
th
e
m
ic
r
om
obi
li
ty
s
e
c
to
r
[
25]
.
O
ve
r
a
ll
,
e
-
bi
ke
s
r
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
not
ju
s
t
a
n
im
pr
ove
m
e
nt
ove
r
c
onve
nt
io
na
l
bi
c
yc
le
s
but
a
t
r
a
n
s
f
or
m
a
ti
ve
a
nd poli
c
y
-
dr
iv
e
n m
ode
of
s
us
ta
in
a
bl
e
ur
ba
n m
obi
li
ty
.
E
-
bi
ke
s
pos
s
e
s
s
a
lo
ng
a
nd
not
a
bl
e
hi
s
to
r
y,
or
ig
in
a
ti
ng
in
t
he
la
te
ni
ne
te
e
nt
h
c
e
nt
ur
y
w
it
h
th
e
in
tr
oduc
ti
on
of
e
a
r
ly
e
xpe
r
im
e
nt
a
l
pr
ot
ot
ype
s
.
T
he
ir
m
ode
r
n
r
e
s
ur
ge
nc
e
c
a
n
be
a
tt
r
ib
ut
e
d
to
a
dva
nc
e
m
e
nt
s
in
ba
tt
e
r
y
te
c
hnol
ogy,
th
e
us
e
of
li
ght
w
e
ig
ht
m
a
te
r
ia
ls
,
a
nd
th
e
gr
ow
in
g
gl
oba
l
a
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s
of
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
is
s
ue
s
.
U
nl
ik
e
tr
a
di
ti
ona
l
bi
c
yc
le
s
,
e
-
bi
ke
s
a
r
e
e
qui
ppe
d
w
it
h
e
le
c
tr
ic
m
ot
or
s
a
nd
r
e
c
ha
r
ge
a
bl
e
ba
tt
e
r
ie
s
th
a
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1297
pr
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e
g
a
s
e
m
is
s
io
ns
,
r
e
s
pon
s
ib
le
f
or
a
ppr
oxi
m
a
te
ly
14%
o
f
gl
oba
l
e
m
is
s
io
ns
.
A
lt
hough
publ
ic
tr
a
ns
por
ta
ti
on
s
ys
te
m
s
c
a
n
he
lp
r
e
duc
e
c
onge
s
ti
on,
th
e
y of
te
n f
a
il
t
o
m
e
e
t
th
e
m
obi
li
ty
de
m
a
nds
of
e
xpa
ndi
ng ur
ba
n popula
ti
ons
, l
e
a
di
ng t
o a
gr
e
a
te
r
de
pe
nde
nc
e
on
pr
iv
a
te
ve
hi
c
le
s
.
I
n
th
is
c
ont
e
xt
,
e
-
bi
ke
s
h
a
ve
e
m
e
r
ge
d
a
s
a
pr
a
c
ti
c
a
l
a
lt
e
r
na
ti
ve
,
of
f
e
r
in
g
f
le
xi
bi
li
ty
a
nd
a
c
c
e
s
s
ib
il
it
y f
or
s
hor
t
a
nd me
di
um
-
di
s
ta
nc
e
c
om
m
ut
e
s
w
hi
le
m
i
ni
m
iz
in
g e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
im
pa
c
t
[
10
]
–
[
12]
.
D
e
s
pi
te
th
e
ir
m
a
ny
a
dva
nt
a
g
e
s
,
th
e
a
dopt
io
n
of
e
-
bi
ke
s
f
a
c
e
s
s
e
ve
r
a
l
obs
ta
c
le
s
s
uc
h
a
s
in
a
de
qua
te
in
f
r
a
s
tr
uc
tu
r
e
,
hi
gh
in
it
ia
l
c
os
ts
,
a
nd
in
c
ons
is
te
nt
r
e
gul
a
to
r
y
p
ol
ic
ie
s
.
C
on
c
e
r
ns
r
e
la
t
e
d
to
b
a
tt
e
r
y
di
s
pos
a
l,
r
e
c
yc
li
ng,
a
nd
s
us
ta
in
a
bl
e
e
ne
r
gy
s
our
c
in
g
f
ur
th
e
r
c
om
pl
ic
a
te
w
id
e
s
pr
e
a
d
a
c
c
e
pt
a
nc
e
.
T
he
pur
pos
e
of
th
is
r
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
is
to
e
xa
m
in
e
th
e
e
vol
ut
io
n
of
e
-
bi
ke
s
,
a
s
s
e
s
s
th
e
ir
e
n
vi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
be
ne
f
it
s
,
a
nd
pr
opos
e
s
tr
a
te
gi
e
s
to
ove
r
c
om
e
e
xi
s
ti
ng ba
r
r
ie
r
s
, t
he
r
e
by e
na
bl
in
g br
oa
de
r
a
dopt
io
n
of
t
hi
s
s
us
ta
in
a
bl
e
t
r
a
ns
por
t
m
ode
.
T
he
r
e
a
r
e
s
e
ve
r
a
l
im
por
ta
nt
ga
ps
in
c
ur
r
e
nt
e
-
bi
ke
r
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
th
a
t
r
e
qui
r
e
f
ur
th
e
r
s
tu
dy.
O
ne
m
a
jo
r
li
m
it
a
ti
on
is
th
e
la
c
k
of
c
om
pr
e
he
ns
iv
e
a
s
s
e
s
s
m
e
nt
of
th
e
c
om
pl
e
te
li
f
e
c
yc
le
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
im
pa
c
t,
pa
r
ti
c
ul
a
r
ly
in
th
e
m
a
nuf
a
c
tu
r
in
g
a
nd
di
s
pos
a
l
s
ta
g
e
s
.
I
n
a
ddi
ti
on,
th
e
r
e
is
li
m
it
e
d
unde
r
s
ta
ndi
ng
of
c
ons
um
e
r
pe
r
c
e
pt
io
ns
,
be
h
a
vi
or
a
l
a
s
p
e
c
ts
,
a
nd
in
f
r
a
s
tr
uc
tu
r
e
c
h
a
ll
e
n
ge
s
in
d
e
ve
lo
pi
ng
r
e
gi
ons
,
w
hi
c
h
r
e
s
tr
ic
ts
la
r
ge
-
s
c
a
le
a
dopt
io
n.
A
de
ta
il
e
d
a
na
ly
s
is
of
e
xi
s
ti
ng
pol
ic
y
f
r
a
m
e
w
or
ks
a
nd
th
e
ir
e
f
f
e
c
ti
ve
ne
s
s
in
pr
om
ot
in
g
e
-
bi
ke
i
nt
e
gr
a
ti
on i
nt
o ur
ba
n t
r
a
ns
por
t
s
ys
te
m
s
i
s
a
ls
o m
i
s
s
in
g.
T
hi
s
s
tu
dy
s
e
e
ks
to
br
id
ge
e
xi
s
ti
ng
g
a
ps
by
f
ul
f
il
li
ng
m
ul
ti
pl
e
obj
e
c
ti
ve
s
.
I
t
a
im
s
to
e
xpl
or
e
th
e
hi
s
to
r
ic
a
l
de
ve
lo
pm
e
nt
a
nd
te
c
hnol
ogi
c
a
l
a
dva
nc
e
m
e
nt
s
i
n
e
-
bi
ke
s
.
F
ur
th
e
r
m
or
e
,
it
e
va
lu
a
te
s
th
e
ir
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
a
dva
nt
a
ge
s
ove
r
c
onve
nt
io
na
l
tr
a
ns
por
t
m
e
th
ods
.
T
he
r
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
a
ls
o
id
e
nt
if
ie
s
ba
r
r
ie
r
s
to
a
dopt
io
n
a
nd
pr
opos
e
s
ta
r
ge
te
d
s
ol
ut
io
ns
,
w
hi
le
a
s
s
e
s
s
in
g
th
e
r
ol
e
of
pol
ic
y
a
nd
in
f
r
a
s
tr
uc
tu
r
e
in
s
uppor
ti
ng
w
id
e
s
pr
e
a
d e
-
bi
ke
us
a
ge
.
2.
M
E
T
H
O
D
T
he
m
e
th
odol
ogy
a
dopt
e
d
f
or
s
tu
dyi
ng
th
e
e
vol
ut
io
n
a
nd
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
be
ne
f
it
s
of
e
-
bi
ke
s
is
ba
s
e
d
on
a
c
om
bi
na
ti
on
of
hi
s
to
r
ic
a
l
a
n
a
ly
s
is
,
t
e
c
hni
c
a
l
e
xa
m
in
a
ti
on,
a
nd
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
a
s
s
e
s
s
m
e
nt
.
T
hi
s
m
ul
ti
-
di
m
e
ns
io
na
l
a
ppr
oa
c
h
pr
ovi
de
s
a
c
om
pr
e
he
n
s
iv
e
unde
r
s
ta
ndi
ng
of
e
-
bi
ke
de
ve
lo
pm
e
nt
ove
r
ti
m
e
.
T
he
s
tu
dy
dr
a
w
s
in
s
pi
r
a
ti
on
f
r
om
hi
s
to
r
ic
a
l
de
s
ig
ns
,
s
u
c
h
a
s
th
e
m
ode
l
il
lu
s
tr
a
te
d
in
F
ig
ur
e
1.
T
he
hi
s
to
r
ic
a
l
f
ounda
ti
on of
e
-
bi
ke
s
is
be
s
t
r
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
e
d by e
a
r
ly
pr
ot
ot
ype
s
l
ik
e
t
he
J
unc
ke
r
e
le
c
tr
ic
b
ik
e
, s
ho
w
n i
n F
ig
ur
e
1.
T
hi
s
vi
nt
a
ge
m
ode
l
hi
ghl
ig
ht
s
th
e
f
unda
m
e
nt
a
l
de
s
ig
n
e
le
m
e
nt
s
a
nd
e
ngi
ne
e
r
in
g
c
ha
ll
e
nge
s
e
nc
ount
e
r
e
d
dur
in
g
th
e
e
a
r
ly
s
ta
ge
s
of
e
-
bi
ke
in
nov
a
ti
on.
E
xa
m
in
in
g
s
uc
h
e
xa
m
pl
e
s
of
f
e
r
s
va
lu
a
bl
e
in
s
ig
ht
s
in
to
th
e
e
vol
ut
io
n
of
e
-
bi
ke
c
om
pone
nt
s
,
ba
tt
e
r
y
s
ys
te
m
s
,
a
nd
s
tr
uc
tu
r
a
l
f
r
a
m
e
w
or
ks
,
th
e
r
e
by
e
s
ta
bl
i
s
hi
ng
a
f
ounda
ti
on f
or
a
na
ly
z
in
g m
ode
r
n a
dva
nc
e
m
e
nt
s
a
nd s
u
s
ta
in
a
bi
l
it
y outc
om
e
s
.
F
ig
ur
e
1.
J
unc
ke
r
e
le
c
tr
ic
bi
ke
–
a
n e
a
r
ly
pr
ot
ot
ype
r
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
in
g
th
e
f
ounda
ti
ona
l
de
s
ig
n a
nd mot
or
c
onf
ig
ur
a
ti
on i
n t
he
e
vol
ut
io
n of
e
-
bi
ke
s
[
19]
T
hi
s
s
tu
dy
e
m
pl
oy
s
a
m
ul
t
id
is
c
ip
li
na
r
y
m
e
th
o
dol
og
y
to
in
v
e
s
ti
g
a
te
t
he
e
vol
ut
io
n,
te
c
hni
c
a
l
s
tr
uc
tu
r
e
,
a
nd
e
n
vi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
i
m
pa
c
t
of
e
-
bi
ke
s
.
T
he
m
e
th
od
ol
ogy
i
s
or
ga
ni
z
e
d
in
t
o
f
our
ke
y
c
om
p
one
n
ts
:
h
is
to
r
i
c
a
l
a
na
ly
s
i
s
,
te
c
hni
c
a
l
a
s
s
e
s
s
m
e
nt
,
e
nvi
r
o
nm
e
n
ta
l
e
v
a
lu
a
t
io
n,
a
nd
s
u
s
ta
i
na
bi
li
ty
f
r
a
m
e
w
or
k
d
e
s
ig
n.
E
a
c
h
c
om
pon
e
nt
is
d
e
s
c
r
ib
e
d
i
n
d
e
ta
i
l
to
e
ns
ur
e
m
e
th
odol
og
ic
a
l
tr
a
ns
pa
r
e
n
c
y a
nd
r
e
pr
oduc
i
bi
li
ty
.
W
he
r
e
a
ppl
i
c
a
bl
e
,
pr
e
vi
ou
s
ly
e
s
ta
bl
i
s
h
e
d r
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
pr
oc
e
dur
e
s
a
r
e
r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
d t
o
s
up
por
t
m
e
th
odol
og
ic
a
l
va
l
id
it
y
a
nd
c
on
s
i
s
te
n
c
y.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
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V
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14
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4
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be
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20
25
:
1295
-
1304
1298
2.1.
H
is
t
or
ic
al
a
n
al
ys
is
T
he
hi
s
to
r
ic
a
l
de
ve
lo
pm
e
nt
of
e
-
bi
ke
s
w
a
s
e
x
a
m
in
e
d
th
r
ough
a
s
ys
te
m
a
ti
c
r
e
vi
e
w
of
pa
te
nt
da
ta
ba
s
e
s
,
a
r
c
hi
va
l
r
e
c
or
ds
,
a
nd
a
c
a
de
m
ic
publ
ic
a
ti
on
s
s
p
a
nni
ng
f
r
om
e
a
r
ly
20t
h
-
c
e
nt
ur
y
de
s
ig
ns
to
c
ont
e
m
por
a
r
y
m
ode
ls
.
H
is
to
r
ic
a
l
da
ta
w
e
r
e
s
our
c
e
d
f
r
om
onl
in
e
pa
te
nt
r
e
pos
it
or
ie
s
s
u
c
h
a
s
G
oogl
e
P
a
te
nt
s
a
nd
th
e
U
S
P
T
O
,
a
s
w
e
ll
a
s
f
r
om
in
dus
tr
ia
l
doc
um
e
nt
a
ti
on
a
nd
pr
io
r
s
c
hol
a
r
ly
s
tu
di
e
s
[
1]
,
[
2]
.
P
a
r
ti
c
ul
a
r
e
m
pha
s
is
w
a
s
pl
a
c
e
d
on
ke
y
te
c
hnol
ogi
c
a
l
m
il
e
s
to
ne
s
,
in
c
lu
di
ng
th
e
tr
a
ns
it
io
n
f
r
om
le
a
d
-
a
c
id
to
li
th
iu
m
-
io
n
ba
tt
e
r
ie
s
a
nd
th
e
in
tr
oduc
ti
on
o
f
pe
da
l
-
a
s
s
is
t
m
e
c
ha
ni
s
m
s
.
T
h
e
vi
nt
a
ge
J
unc
ke
r
e
le
c
tr
ic
bi
ke
,
il
lu
s
tr
a
te
d
in
F
ig
ur
e
1,
s
e
r
ve
d
a
s
a
r
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
a
ti
ve
pr
ot
ot
ype
f
or
a
na
ly
z
in
g
th
e
te
c
hnol
ogi
c
a
l
e
vol
ut
io
n
a
nd
d
e
s
ig
n
c
ha
r
a
c
te
r
is
ti
c
s
of
e
a
r
ly
e
-
bi
ke
s
.
2.2.
T
e
c
h
n
ic
al
a
s
s
e
s
s
m
e
n
t
A
c
om
pa
r
a
ti
ve
te
c
hni
c
a
l
a
na
ly
s
i
s
w
a
s
c
onduc
te
d
u
s
in
g
a
c
om
pone
nt
-
ba
s
e
d
e
va
lu
a
ti
on
f
r
a
m
e
w
or
k.
T
he
r
e
f
e
r
e
nc
e
e
-
bi
ke
m
od
e
l
(
J
unc
k
e
r
e
le
c
tr
ic
bi
k
e
)
w
a
s
vi
r
tu
a
ll
y
de
c
ons
tr
uc
te
d
th
r
ough
a
nnot
a
te
d
di
a
gr
a
m
s
a
nd
te
c
hni
c
a
l
doc
um
e
nt
a
ti
on.
T
he
po
s
it
io
ni
ng
of
c
r
it
ic
a
l
c
om
pone
nt
s
s
uc
h
a
s
e
le
c
tr
ic
m
ot
or
s
,
c
ont
r
ol
uni
ts
,
a
nd
ba
tt
e
r
y
e
nc
lo
s
ur
e
s
w
a
s
e
xa
m
in
e
d
to
id
e
nt
if
y
th
e
pe
r
f
or
m
a
nc
e
c
ons
tr
a
in
ts
of
e
a
r
ly
de
s
ig
ns
.
T
he
s
e
obs
e
r
va
ti
ons
w
e
r
e
s
ubs
e
que
nt
ly
c
om
pa
r
e
d
w
it
h
th
e
s
pe
c
if
ic
a
ti
ons
of
c
ont
e
m
por
a
r
y
e
-
bi
ke
s
,
de
r
iv
e
d
f
r
om
m
a
nuf
a
c
tu
r
e
r
da
ta
s
he
e
ts
a
nd
s
c
hol
a
r
ly
publ
ic
a
ti
ons
[
3]
,
[
4
]
.
K
e
y
pa
r
a
m
e
te
r
s
,
in
c
lu
di
ng
to
ta
l
w
e
ig
ht
,
pow
e
r
out
put
,
ba
tt
e
r
y
e
ne
r
gy
de
ns
it
y,
a
nd
s
ys
te
m
e
f
f
ic
ie
nc
y,
w
e
r
e
s
ys
te
m
a
ti
c
a
ll
y
ta
bul
a
te
d
to
tr
a
c
e
te
c
hnol
ogi
c
a
l
pr
ogr
e
s
s
a
c
r
os
s
ge
ne
r
a
ti
ons
.
R
e
pr
oduc
ib
il
it
y
w
a
s
m
a
in
ta
i
ne
d
by
r
e
f
e
r
e
nc
in
g
e
s
ta
bl
is
he
d
t
e
a
r
dow
n
m
e
th
odol
ogi
e
s
a
nd ope
n
-
a
c
c
e
s
s
d
e
s
ig
n s
c
he
m
a
ti
c
s
.
2.3.
E
n
vi
r
on
m
e
n
t
al
a
s
s
e
s
s
m
e
n
t
T
h
is
s
tu
d
y
a
pp
li
e
s
a
li
f
e
c
yc
le
a
s
s
e
s
s
m
e
n
t
(
L
C
A
)
f
r
a
m
e
w
or
k
c
om
pl
ia
nt
w
it
h
I
S
O
14
040
s
ta
nd
a
r
d
s
,
s
u
ppl
e
m
e
n
te
d by
li
te
r
a
t
ur
e
s
y
nt
he
s
i
s
a
nd
s
im
ul
a
ti
on
-
ba
s
e
d
m
od
e
l
in
g.
T
he
e
nv
ir
o
nm
e
nt
a
l
im
pa
c
t
s
w
e
r
e
a
na
l
y
z
e
d
a
c
r
o
s
s
th
r
e
e
p
r
im
a
r
y
s
t
a
g
e
s
:
m
a
nu
f
a
c
t
ur
in
g
(
in
c
l
udi
ng
t
he
pr
od
uc
t
io
n
of
th
e
f
r
a
m
e
,
m
ot
or
,
a
n
d
ba
tt
e
r
y)
,
u
s
a
ge
(
c
ove
r
in
g
c
h
a
r
ge
c
y
c
le
s
a
n
d
e
n
e
r
gy
c
on
s
um
pt
i
on)
,
a
nd
e
nd
-
of
-
li
f
e
(
f
oc
u
s
in
g
on
di
s
po
s
a
l
a
nd
r
e
c
yc
li
n
g)
.
E
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
pe
r
f
or
m
a
nc
e
w
a
s
e
v
a
lu
a
te
d
u
s
in
g
k
e
y
m
e
tr
ic
s
s
u
c
h
a
s
C
O
₂ e
qui
v
a
le
n
t
e
m
i
s
s
i
ons
p
e
r
ki
lo
m
e
te
r
,
c
um
ul
a
ti
ve
e
ne
r
gy
d
e
m
a
nd
,
a
n
d
r
e
c
yc
li
n
g
e
f
f
i
c
ie
n
c
y.
D
a
t
a
s
o
ur
c
e
s
in
c
l
ude
d
pe
e
r
-
r
e
vi
e
w
e
d
da
t
a
ba
s
e
s
s
uc
h
a
s
e
c
o
i
nve
nt
,
gov
e
r
nm
e
nt
li
f
e
c
y
c
le
r
e
por
t
s
,
a
nd
v
a
li
da
te
d
s
im
u
la
t
io
n
out
p
ut
s
f
r
om
e
xi
s
ti
n
g
s
tu
di
e
s
[
5]
,
[
6]
.
T
he
c
r
a
dl
e
-
to
-
gr
a
v
e
im
p
a
c
t
a
s
s
e
s
s
m
e
nt
e
nc
om
pa
s
s
e
d
b
ot
h
h
is
to
r
i
c
a
l
a
n
d
m
od
e
r
n
e
-
bi
ke
m
od
e
ls
,
a
c
c
o
unt
in
g
f
or
va
r
ia
ti
o
ns
in
m
a
te
r
i
a
l
c
om
po
s
it
io
n,
b
a
tt
e
r
y
c
h
e
m
i
s
tr
y,
m
a
nu
f
a
c
tu
r
in
g
pr
oc
e
s
s
e
s
,
a
n
d
op
e
r
a
ti
ona
l
e
n
e
r
gy
c
ons
um
pt
io
n.
E
m
i
s
s
io
n
va
l
ue
s
a
s
s
o
c
ia
t
e
d
w
it
h
pr
odu
c
ti
on
a
nd
ope
r
a
ti
on
w
e
r
e
d
e
r
iv
e
d
f
r
om
ve
r
if
i
e
d
e
m
i
s
s
io
n
f
a
c
to
r
da
t
a
s
e
t
s
.
A
c
o
m
pa
r
a
ti
ve
a
na
l
ys
i
s
of
le
a
d
-
a
c
id
a
nd
li
t
hi
u
m
-
io
n
ba
tt
e
r
y
c
onf
ig
ur
a
ti
o
ns
w
a
s
p
e
r
f
or
m
e
d
to
il
lu
s
tr
a
te
t
he
pr
o
gr
e
s
s
i
on of
s
u
s
ta
i
na
bi
li
t
y a
c
r
o
s
s
s
u
c
c
e
s
s
iv
e
t
e
c
h
nol
ogi
c
a
l
g
e
ne
r
a
ti
on
s
.
2.4.
S
u
r
ve
y an
d
d
at
a c
ol
le
c
t
io
n
T
o
e
va
lu
a
te
r
e
a
l
-
w
or
ld
us
a
ge
p
a
tt
e
r
ns
,
a
dopt
io
n
ba
r
r
ie
r
s
,
a
nd
us
e
r
pe
r
c
e
pt
io
ns
, a
pr
im
a
r
y
s
ur
ve
y
w
a
s
c
onduc
te
d
in
vol
vi
ng
128
e
-
bi
ke
us
e
r
s
a
c
r
os
s
th
r
e
e
ur
ba
n
c
e
nt
e
r
s
in
I
ndi
a
:
V
is
a
kha
pa
tn
a
m
,
H
yde
r
a
ba
d,
a
nd
V
ij
a
ya
w
a
da
.
T
he
s
tr
uc
tu
r
e
d
que
s
ti
onna
ir
e
c
om
pr
is
e
d
s
e
c
ti
ons
on
da
il
y
tr
a
ve
l
be
ha
vi
or
,
c
ha
r
gi
ng
f
r
e
que
nc
y,
m
a
in
te
na
nc
e
c
ha
ll
e
nge
s
,
a
nd
ke
y
m
ot
iv
a
ti
ons
f
or
s
e
le
c
ti
ng
e
-
bi
ke
s
ove
r
c
onve
nt
io
na
l
ve
hi
c
le
s
.
I
n
a
ddi
ti
on,
s
e
m
i
-
s
tr
uc
tu
r
e
d
in
te
r
vi
e
w
s
w
e
r
e
c
a
r
r
ie
d
out
w
it
h
f
iv
e
e
-
bi
ke
m
a
nuf
a
c
tu
r
e
r
s
to
ga
th
e
r
in
s
ig
ht
s
in
to
de
s
ig
n
pr
a
c
ti
c
e
s
,
s
uppl
y
c
ha
in
c
ons
tr
a
in
ts
,
a
nd
pr
e
va
il
in
g
r
e
gul
a
to
r
y
is
s
ue
s
.
E
th
ic
a
l
c
le
a
r
a
n
c
e
w
a
s
s
e
c
ur
e
d
b
e
f
or
e
da
ta
c
ol
le
c
ti
on, a
nd i
nf
or
m
e
d c
ons
e
nt
w
a
s
obt
a
in
e
d f
r
om
a
ll
pa
r
ti
c
ip
a
nt
s
. P
a
r
ti
c
ip
a
ti
on w
a
s
e
nt
ir
e
ly
vol
unt
a
r
y,
a
nd r
e
s
pons
e
s
w
e
r
e
r
e
c
or
de
d a
nonymou
s
ly
t
o e
ns
ur
e
c
onf
id
e
nt
i
a
li
ty
.
2.5.
S
u
s
t
ai
n
ab
il
i
t
y
f
r
am
e
w
o
r
k
d
e
s
ig
n
D
r
a
w
in
g
on
in
s
ig
ht
s
f
r
om
hi
s
to
r
ic
a
l,
te
c
hni
c
a
l,
a
nd
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
a
s
s
e
s
s
m
e
nt
s
,
a
c
om
pr
e
he
ns
iv
e
de
s
ig
n
f
r
a
m
e
w
or
k
w
a
s
f
or
m
ul
a
te
d
f
or
ne
xt
-
ge
ne
r
a
ti
on
s
us
ta
in
a
bl
e
e
-
bi
ke
s
.
T
he
pr
opos
e
d
f
r
a
m
e
w
or
k
is
s
tr
uc
tu
r
e
d
a
r
ound
th
r
e
e
c
or
e
pi
ll
a
r
s
:
e
ne
r
gy
e
f
f
ic
ie
nc
y,
r
e
c
yc
la
bi
li
ty
,
a
nd
us
e
r
-
c
e
nt
r
ic
de
s
ig
n.
I
t
e
m
pha
s
iz
e
s
th
e
us
e
of
m
odul
a
r
c
om
pone
nt
s
,
r
e
c
yc
la
bl
e
ba
tt
e
r
y
e
nc
lo
s
ur
e
s
,
a
nd
r
e
ne
w
a
bl
e
e
ne
r
gy
-
ba
s
e
d
c
ha
r
gi
ng
s
ol
ut
io
ns
,
a
ll
de
r
iv
e
d
f
r
om
be
s
t
pr
a
c
ti
c
e
s
id
e
nt
if
ie
d
in
e
xi
s
ti
ng
li
te
r
a
tu
r
e
a
nd
in
dus
tr
ia
l
c
a
s
e
s
tu
di
e
s
[
7]
,
[
8]
.
T
he
c
onc
e
pt
ua
l
de
s
ig
n
s
w
e
r
e
va
li
da
te
d t
hr
ough s
im
ul
a
ti
on
-
ba
s
e
d e
va
lu
a
ti
ons
t
o e
xa
m
in
e
f
e
a
s
ib
il
it
y, s
tr
uc
tu
r
a
l
in
te
gr
it
y, a
nd ove
r
a
ll
s
ys
te
m
pe
r
f
or
m
a
nc
e
.
2.6.
E
vol
u
t
io
n
an
d
e
n
vi
r
on
m
e
n
t
al
b
e
n
e
f
it
s
of
e
le
c
t
r
ic
c
yc
li
n
g
E
-
bi
ke
s
ha
ve
pr
ogr
e
s
s
e
d
f
r
om
e
a
r
ly
e
xpe
r
im
e
nt
a
l
pr
ot
ot
ype
s
t
o
a
pi
vot
a
l
c
om
pone
nt
of
s
us
ta
in
a
bl
e
tr
a
ns
por
ta
ti
on
s
ys
te
m
s
.
T
he
ir
e
vol
ut
io
n
e
m
bodi
e
s
c
ont
i
nuous
te
c
hnol
ogi
c
a
l
in
nov
a
ti
on,
gr
ow
in
g
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
c
ons
c
io
u
s
ne
s
s
,
a
nd
th
e
tr
a
ns
f
or
m
a
ti
on
of
ur
ba
n
m
obi
li
ty
pa
r
a
di
gm
s
.
T
hi
s
c
h
a
pt
e
r
e
xpl
or
e
s
th
e
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v
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(
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as
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1299
de
ve
lo
pm
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a
l
tr
a
je
c
to
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y
of
e
-
bi
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s
a
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e
xa
m
in
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s
th
e
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nvi
r
onm
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dva
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m
pha
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iz
in
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it
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oba
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s
us
ta
in
a
bi
li
ty
goa
ls
a
nd
c
le
a
n e
n
e
r
gy i
ni
ti
a
ti
ve
s
.
2.6.1.
E
vol
u
t
io
n
of
e
-
b
ik
e
s
T
he
e
vol
ut
io
n
of
e
-
bi
ke
s
ha
s
b
e
e
n
dr
iv
e
n
by
c
ont
in
uou
s
a
dva
n
c
e
m
e
nt
s
in
e
le
c
tr
ic
a
l,
m
e
c
ha
ni
c
a
l,
a
nd
m
a
te
r
ia
l
e
ngi
ne
e
r
in
g.
E
a
r
ly
e
-
b
ik
e
m
ode
ls
r
e
li
e
d
on
bul
ky
le
a
d
-
a
c
id
ba
tt
e
r
ie
s
,
w
hi
c
h
of
f
e
r
e
d
li
m
it
e
d
r
a
nge
,
lo
w
e
f
f
ic
ie
nc
y,
a
nd
poor
dur
a
bi
li
ty
,
r
e
s
tr
ic
ti
ng
th
e
ir
pr
a
c
ti
c
a
li
ty
f
or
lo
ng
-
di
s
ta
nc
e
tr
a
ve
l.
T
he
tr
a
ns
it
io
n
to
li
th
iu
m
-
io
n ba
tt
e
r
ie
s
m
a
r
ke
d a
m
a
jo
r
t
u
r
ni
ng point
by i
m
pr
ov
in
g e
ne
r
gy de
ns
it
y, r
e
duc
in
g ove
r
a
ll
w
e
ig
ht
, a
nd
s
ig
ni
f
ic
a
nt
ly
e
nha
nc
in
g
p
e
r
f
or
m
a
nc
e
a
nd
u
s
e
r
c
onv
e
ni
e
nc
e
.
M
ode
r
n
e
-
bi
ke
s
now
f
e
a
tu
r
e
br
us
hl
e
s
s
D
C
m
ot
or
s
,
in
te
ll
ig
e
nt
c
ont
r
ol
s
ys
te
m
s
,
a
nd
a
e
r
odyna
m
ic
f
r
a
m
e
de
s
ig
ns
th
a
t
c
ol
le
c
ti
ve
ly
opt
im
iz
e
e
f
f
ic
ie
nc
y
a
nd
r
id
in
g
c
om
f
or
t.
F
ur
th
e
r
m
o
r
e
,
th
e
in
c
or
por
a
ti
on
of
te
c
hnol
ogi
e
s
s
uc
h
a
s
p
e
da
l
-
a
s
s
is
t
s
y
s
te
m
s
,
r
e
ge
n
e
r
a
ti
ve
br
a
ki
ng,
a
nd
B
lu
e
to
ot
h
-
e
na
bl
e
d
c
onne
c
ti
vi
ty
ha
s
a
dva
n
c
e
d
bot
h
e
ne
r
gy
r
e
c
ove
r
y
a
nd
th
e
ove
r
a
ll
r
id
in
g
e
xpe
r
ie
nc
e
.
T
he
in
te
gr
a
ti
on
of
di
gi
ta
l
te
c
hnol
ogi
e
s
,
in
c
lu
di
ng
G
P
S
na
vi
ga
ti
on,
I
oT
-
ba
s
e
d
pe
r
f
or
m
a
nc
e
m
oni
to
r
in
g,
a
nd
m
obi
le
a
pp
s
ync
hr
oni
z
a
ti
on,
ha
s
f
ur
th
e
r
tr
a
ns
f
or
m
e
d
e
-
bi
ke
s
in
to
s
m
a
r
t
m
obi
li
ty
s
ol
ut
io
ns
.
T
he
s
e
f
e
a
tu
r
e
s
e
na
bl
e
r
e
a
l
-
ti
m
e
tr
a
c
ki
ng,
pr
e
di
c
ti
ve
m
a
in
te
na
nc
e
,
a
nd
r
out
e
opt
im
iz
a
ti
on,
th
e
r
e
by
im
pr
ov
in
g
s
a
f
e
ty
,
r
e
li
a
bi
li
ty
,
a
nd
ope
r
a
ti
ona
l
e
f
f
ic
ie
nc
y.
A
s
a
r
e
s
ul
t,
e
-
bi
ke
s
ha
ve
e
vol
ve
d
f
r
om
ni
c
he
e
xpe
r
im
e
nt
a
l
ve
hi
c
le
s
in
to
m
a
in
s
tr
e
a
m
tr
a
ns
por
ta
ti
on
opt
io
ns
e
m
br
a
c
e
d
by
ur
ba
n
c
om
m
ut
e
r
s
,
lo
gi
s
ti
c
s
s
e
r
vi
c
e
s
,
a
nd
r
e
c
r
e
a
ti
ona
l
r
id
e
r
s
a
c
r
os
s
t
he
gl
obe
.
2.6.2. E
n
vi
r
on
m
e
n
t
al
b
e
n
e
f
it
s
E
-
bi
ke
s
a
r
e
e
s
s
e
nt
ia
l
in
f
a
c
il
it
a
ti
ng
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
s
us
ta
in
a
b
il
it
y
in
t
r
a
ns
por
ta
ti
on
pr
im
a
r
il
y
b
y
lo
w
e
r
in
g
th
e
a
m
ount
of
gr
e
e
nhous
e
ga
s
e
s
pr
oduc
e
d w
he
n
c
om
pa
r
e
d
to
tr
a
di
ti
ona
l
in
te
r
na
l
c
om
bus
ti
on
e
ngi
ne
(
I
C
E
)
ve
hi
c
le
s
,
i.
e
.
e
m
is
s
io
ns
a
r
e
lo
w
e
r
f
r
om
e
-
b
ik
e
s
r
e
la
ti
ve
t
o
I
C
E
ve
hi
c
le
s
.
T
he
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
a
dva
nt
a
ge
is
m
os
t
pr
onounc
e
d
w
he
n
th
e
e
le
c
tr
ic
it
y
th
a
t
w
il
l
be
us
e
d
to
c
h
a
r
ge
th
e
e
-
bi
ke
c
om
e
s
f
r
om
r
e
ne
w
a
bl
e
e
ne
r
gy,
s
uc
h
a
s
s
ol
a
r
or
w
in
d.
E
-
bi
ke
s
a
r
e
one
of
th
e
m
os
t
e
f
f
ic
ie
nt
pe
r
s
ona
l
m
ode
s
of
tr
a
ns
por
t,
u
s
in
g
r
e
la
ti
ve
ly
li
tt
le
a
m
ount
of
e
ne
r
gy
pe
r
ki
lo
m
e
te
r
tr
a
ve
ll
e
d.
T
he
in
c
r
e
a
s
e
d
us
e
of
e
-
bi
ke
s
di
r
e
c
tl
y
r
e
duc
e
s
de
pe
nd
e
nc
e
on
f
os
s
il
f
ue
ls
a
nd t
he
r
e
f
or
e
l
ow
e
r
s
t
he
s
tr
a
in
pl
a
c
e
d on ur
ba
n
e
ne
r
gy s
ys
te
m
s
.
I
n
th
is
c
ont
e
xt
,
s
w
it
c
hi
ng
a
c
e
r
ta
in
num
be
r
of
s
hor
t
t
r
ip
c
a
r
jo
ur
ne
ys
to
e
-
bi
ke
r
id
e
s
r
e
duc
e
s
c
a
r
bon
e
m
is
s
io
ns
a
nd
a
l
s
o
li
m
it
s
va
r
io
us
e
m
is
s
io
n
s
of
ha
r
m
f
ul
pol
lu
ta
n
ts
,
s
uc
h
a
s
c
a
r
bon
m
onoxide
,
ni
tr
oge
n
oxi
de
s
,
a
nd
f
in
e
pa
r
ti
c
ul
a
te
m
a
tt
e
r
.
I
n
a
ddi
ti
on,
e
-
bi
ke
s
f
os
t
e
r
a
c
le
a
n
e
r
a
nd
qui
e
te
r
c
it
y
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
by
r
e
m
ovi
ng
tr
a
f
f
ic
, i
dl
e
t
im
e
, a
nd nois
e
. I
m
p
r
ove
m
e
nt
s
t
o a
ir
qua
li
ty
a
nd ur
ba
n l
iv
a
bi
li
ty
a
r
is
e
f
r
om
t
he
s
e
a
s
pe
c
ts
. B
e
yond
th
e
ir
ga
in
s
i
n e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
be
ne
f
it
s
, e
-
bi
ke
s
i
nc
r
e
a
s
e
a
c
ti
ve
m
ode
s
of
m
obi
li
ty
w
hi
c
h ha
ve
he
a
lt
h be
ne
f
it
s
a
s
w
e
ll
a
s
r
e
du
c
e
he
a
lt
hc
a
r
e
c
os
ts
a
s
s
oc
ia
te
d
w
it
h
s
e
d
e
nt
a
r
y
li
f
e
s
t
yl
e
s
.
E
-
bi
ke
s
a
r
e
a
ke
y
c
om
pone
nt
of
c
r
e
a
ti
ng
s
us
ta
in
a
bl
e
m
obi
li
ty
be
ha
vi
or
,
lo
w
e
r
in
g
e
ne
r
gy
c
on
s
um
p
ti
on,
a
nd
im
pr
ovi
ng
w
e
ll
-
be
in
g
in
ur
ba
n
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
s
.
I
n
s
um
m
a
r
y,
th
e
y
c
ons
ti
tu
te
a
c
r
i
ti
c
a
l
s
ol
ut
io
n
to
f
ut
u
r
e
tr
a
ns
por
ta
ti
on
s
ys
te
m
s
,
e
na
bl
in
g
s
us
ta
in
a
bl
e
, h
e
a
lt
hy a
nd e
qui
ta
bl
e
out
c
om
e
s
.
3.
R
E
S
U
L
T
S
A
N
D
D
I
S
C
U
S
S
I
O
N
T
hi
s
s
e
c
ti
on
pr
ovi
de
s
a
n
in
-
de
pt
h
a
n
a
ly
s
is
of
th
e
m
a
jo
r
f
in
di
ngs
f
r
om
th
e
r
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
on
e
-
bi
ke
s
,
hi
ghl
ig
ht
in
g
th
e
ir
pot
e
nt
ia
l
a
s
a
n
e
f
f
e
c
ti
ve
s
ol
ut
io
n
f
or
a
c
hi
e
vi
ng
s
us
ta
in
a
bl
e
ur
ba
n
m
obi
li
ty
.
T
he
r
e
s
ul
ts
a
r
e
or
ga
ni
z
e
d
in
to
th
e
m
a
ti
c
s
ubs
e
c
ti
ons
s
uppor
te
d
by
f
ig
ur
e
s
a
nd
d
a
ta
vi
s
ua
li
z
a
ti
ons
to
h
e
lp
r
e
a
de
r
s
in
te
r
pr
e
t
th
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
e
d
in
f
or
m
a
ti
on
e
f
f
e
c
ti
ve
ly
.
C
om
pa
r
a
ti
ve
a
na
ly
s
e
s
a
r
e
c
onduc
te
d
a
c
r
os
s
r
e
gi
ons
,
li
f
e
c
yc
le
e
m
is
s
io
n
s
ta
ge
s
, pol
ic
y i
nf
lu
e
nc
e
s
, a
nd a
dopt
io
n ba
r
r
ie
r
s
t
o pr
ovi
de
a
hol
is
ti
c
unde
r
s
ta
ndi
ng of
e
-
bi
ke
de
ve
lo
pm
e
nt
a
nd
im
pa
c
t.
T
he
di
s
c
u
s
s
io
n
in
te
gr
a
te
s
qua
nt
it
a
ti
ve
r
e
s
ul
t
s
w
it
h
qua
li
ta
ti
ve
in
s
ig
ht
s
to
f
r
a
m
e
th
e
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l,
e
c
onomi
c
,
a
nd
s
o
c
ia
l
na
r
r
a
ti
ve
s
a
s
s
oc
i
a
te
d
w
it
h
e
-
bi
ke
a
dopt
io
n.
F
ur
th
e
r
m
or
e
,
th
e
f
in
di
ngs
a
r
e
in
te
r
pr
e
te
d
in
li
ght
of
e
xi
s
ti
ng
li
te
r
a
tu
r
e
to
va
li
da
te
obs
e
r
ve
d
tr
e
nds
a
nd
h
ig
hl
ig
ht
th
e
br
oa
de
r
c
ont
r
ib
ut
io
ns
of
e
-
bi
ke
s
w
it
hi
n t
he
f
r
a
m
e
w
or
k of
s
us
ta
in
a
bl
e
t
r
a
ns
por
ta
ti
on s
ys
te
m
s
.
F
ig
ur
e
2
il
lu
s
tr
a
te
s
e
-
bi
ke
a
dopt
io
n
r
a
te
s
a
c
r
os
s
va
r
io
us
r
e
gi
ons
.
T
h
e
a
na
ly
s
is
r
e
v
e
a
ls
th
a
t
r
e
gi
ons
w
it
h
s
tr
ong
gove
r
nm
e
nt
in
c
e
nt
iv
e
s
,
w
e
ll
-
de
ve
lo
pe
d
c
yc
li
n
g
in
f
r
a
s
tr
uc
tu
r
e
,
a
nd
a
c
ti
ve
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
a
w
a
r
e
ne
s
s
c
a
m
pa
ig
ns
de
m
ons
tr
a
te
s
ig
ni
f
ic
a
nt
ly
hi
ghe
r
a
dopt
io
n
le
ve
ls
.
F
or
in
s
ta
nc
e
,
r
e
gi
on
B
r
e
c
or
de
d
a
m
or
e
th
a
n
60%
in
c
r
e
a
s
e
in
a
dopt
io
n
w
it
hi
n
a
s
pa
n
of
th
r
e
e
ye
a
r
s
.
T
h
e
s
e
r
e
s
ul
ts
a
li
gn
w
it
h
pr
e
vi
ous
s
tu
di
e
s
th
a
t
a
tt
r
ib
ut
e
a
dopt
io
n s
uc
c
e
s
s
pr
im
a
r
il
y t
o poli
c
y
-
dr
iv
e
n i
ni
ti
a
ti
ve
s
a
nd i
nf
r
a
s
tr
uc
tu
r
e
s
uppor
t
[
1]
, [
5]
.
F
ig
ur
e
3
de
pi
c
ts
th
e
di
s
tr
ib
ut
io
n
of
li
f
e
c
yc
le
gr
e
e
nhous
e
ga
s
(
G
H
G
)
e
m
is
s
io
ns
a
s
s
oc
ia
t
e
d
w
it
h
e
-
bi
ke
s
.
T
he
a
na
ly
s
i
s
in
di
c
a
te
s
th
a
t
ba
tt
e
r
y
pr
oduc
ti
on
c
ont
r
ib
ut
e
s
th
e
la
r
ge
s
t
s
ha
r
e
(
40%
)
,
f
ol
lo
w
e
d
by
f
r
a
m
e
m
a
nuf
a
c
tu
r
in
g
(
25%
)
a
nd
e
nd
-
of
-
li
f
e
di
s
pos
a
l
(
15%
)
.
D
e
s
pi
te
t
he
s
e
c
ont
r
ib
ut
io
ns
,
th
e
to
ta
l
e
m
i
s
s
io
ns
r
e
m
a
in
c
ons
id
e
r
a
bl
y
lo
w
e
r
th
a
n
th
os
e
of
c
onve
nt
io
n
a
l
ve
hi
c
le
s
.
T
he
s
e
out
c
om
e
s
s
uppor
t
th
e
hypoth
e
s
is
th
a
t
e
-
bi
ke
s
s
ubs
ta
nt
ia
ll
y
r
e
duc
e
th
e
ove
r
a
ll
c
a
r
bon
f
oot
pr
in
t
c
om
pa
r
e
d
to
m
ot
or
iz
e
d
tr
a
ns
por
ta
ti
on.
T
he
f
in
di
ngs
a
r
e
c
ons
is
te
nt
w
it
h
e
s
ta
bl
is
he
d
L
C
A
s
tu
di
e
s
th
a
t
r
e
c
ogni
z
e
e
-
bi
ke
s
a
s
a
m
ong
th
e
m
os
t
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
ll
y
e
f
f
ic
ie
n
t
m
ode
s
of
pe
r
s
ona
l
tr
a
ns
por
t
[
6]
, [
8]
.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
S
N
:
2252
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8814
I
nt
J
A
dv A
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S
c
i
,
V
ol
.
14
, N
o.
4
,
D
e
c
e
m
be
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20
25
:
1295
-
1304
1300
F
ig
ur
e
2.
E
-
b
ik
e
a
dopt
io
n r
a
te
s
by r
e
gi
on
F
ig
ur
e
3.
L
if
e
c
yc
le
gr
e
e
nhous
e
ga
s
e
m
i
s
s
io
ns
s
our
c
e
s
F
ig
ur
e
4
pr
e
s
e
nt
s
a
ti
m
e
-
s
e
r
ie
s
a
na
ly
s
is
of
e
-
bi
ke
us
a
g
e
ove
r
a
te
n
-
ye
a
r
pe
r
io
d
in
c
ount
r
ie
s
w
it
h
a
c
ti
ve
pol
ic
y
in
te
r
ve
nt
io
ns
.
A
c
le
a
r
upw
a
r
d
tr
e
nd
w
a
s
obs
e
r
ve
d
f
ol
lo
w
in
g
th
e
in
t
r
oduc
ti
on
of
s
ubs
id
ie
s
,
ta
x
in
c
e
nt
iv
e
s
,
a
nd
c
yc
li
ng
in
f
r
a
s
tr
uc
tu
r
e
de
ve
lo
pm
e
nt
.
T
h
e
s
e
f
in
di
ngs
unde
r
s
c
or
e
th
e
c
r
it
ic
a
l
r
ol
e
of
r
e
gul
a
to
r
y
f
r
a
m
e
w
or
ks
a
nd
in
f
r
a
s
tr
uc
tu
r
a
l
s
uppor
t
in
pr
om
ot
in
g
s
us
ta
in
a
bl
e
m
obi
li
ty
.
C
om
pa
r
a
bl
e
r
e
s
ul
ts
w
e
r
e
r
e
por
te
d
in
E
ur
ope
a
n
s
tu
di
e
s
th
a
t
e
s
ta
bl
i
s
he
d
a
s
tr
ong c
or
r
e
la
ti
on
be
twe
e
n
f
in
a
nc
ia
l
in
c
e
nt
iv
e
s
a
nd
r
a
pi
d
e
-
bi
ke
a
dopt
io
n [
3]
. F
ig
u
r
e
5 r
a
nks
t
he
pr
im
a
r
y ba
r
r
ie
r
s
t
o l
a
r
ge
-
s
c
a
le
e
-
bi
ke
a
dopt
io
n. H
ig
h upf
r
ont
c
os
ts
a
nd
w
e
a
k
c
ha
r
gi
ng
in
f
r
a
s
tr
uc
tu
r
e
w
e
r
e
th
e
l
a
r
ge
s
t
ba
r
r
ie
r
s
,
a
lo
ng
w
it
h
c
onc
e
r
ns
r
e
g
a
r
di
ng
ba
tt
e
r
y
li
f
e
,
a
nd
f
e
w
r
e
pa
ir
a
nd
m
a
in
te
na
nc
e
opt
io
ns
.
T
he
s
e
r
e
s
ul
ts
s
ugg
e
s
t
th
a
t
a
lt
hough
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
a
dva
nt
a
ge
s
a
r
e
w
id
e
ly
r
e
c
ogni
z
e
d,
pr
a
c
ti
c
a
l
c
ha
ll
e
nge
s
s
u
c
h
a
s
a
f
f
or
da
bi
li
ty
a
nd
in
f
r
a
s
tr
uc
tu
r
e
li
m
it
a
ti
ons
c
ont
in
ue
to
im
pe
de
gr
ow
th
.
T
hi
s
obs
e
r
va
ti
on
is
c
ons
is
te
nt
w
it
h
G
upt
a
e
t
al
.
[
4]
,
w
ho
c
onc
lu
de
d
th
a
t
c
on
s
um
e
r
r
e
lu
c
ta
nc
e
is
pr
e
dom
in
a
nt
ly
i
nf
lu
e
nc
e
d by f
in
a
nc
ia
l
a
nd l
ogi
s
ti
c
a
l
f
a
c
to
r
s
r
a
t
he
r
t
ha
n t
e
c
hnol
ogi
c
a
l
li
m
it
a
ti
ons
.
F
ig
ur
e
4.
E
-
b
ik
e
us
a
ge
r
a
te
s
ove
r
ye
a
r
s
w
it
h
pol
ic
y s
uppor
t
F
ig
ur
e
5.
K
e
y
c
ha
ll
e
nge
s
i
n e
-
bi
ke
a
dopt
io
n
F
ig
ur
e
6
s
um
m
a
r
iz
e
s
th
e
m
ul
ti
di
m
e
ns
io
na
l
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
be
ne
f
it
s
a
s
s
oc
ia
te
d
w
it
h
e
-
bi
ke
s
.
B
ot
h
qua
li
ta
ti
ve
a
nd
qu
a
nt
it
a
ti
ve
a
n
a
ly
s
e
s
id
e
nt
if
ie
d
e
m
i
s
s
io
n
r
e
du
c
ti
on
a
nd
a
ir
qu
a
li
ty
im
pr
ove
m
e
nt
a
s
th
e
m
os
t
s
ig
ni
f
ic
a
nt
be
ne
f
it
s
,
f
ol
lo
w
e
d
by
tr
a
f
f
ic
c
onge
s
ti
on
r
e
li
e
f
a
n
d
pos
it
iv
e
im
pa
c
t
s
on
phy
s
ic
a
l
h
e
a
lt
h.
T
he
s
e
r
e
s
ul
ts
c
onf
ir
m
th
e
hypothe
s
is
r
e
ga
r
di
ng
th
e
s
us
ta
in
a
bi
li
ty
pot
e
nt
ia
l
of
e
-
bi
ke
s
a
nd
a
r
e
c
ons
is
te
nt
w
it
h
f
in
di
ngs
f
r
om
gl
oba
l
s
tu
di
e
s
c
onduc
te
d
in
c
it
ie
s
s
uc
h
a
s
A
m
s
te
r
da
m
,
C
ope
nha
ge
n,
a
nd
S
he
nz
he
n
[
2]
,
[
7]
.
T
he
a
n
a
ly
s
is
f
ur
th
e
r
r
e
ve
a
l
s
th
a
t
r
e
gi
ons
w
it
h
s
uppor
ti
ve
gov
e
r
nm
e
nt
pol
ic
ie
s
a
nd
w
e
ll
-
de
ve
lo
pe
d
c
y
c
li
ng
in
f
r
a
s
tr
uc
tu
r
e
de
m
ons
tr
a
te
hi
ghe
r
a
dopt
io
n
r
a
te
s
,
r
e
a
f
f
i
r
m
in
g
th
e
c
onc
lu
s
io
ns
in
[
2]
,
[
11]
,
w
ho
obs
e
r
ve
d
s
im
il
a
r
tr
e
nds
in
E
ur
ope
a
nd
L
a
ti
n
A
m
e
r
ic
a
.
U
nl
ik
e
e
a
r
li
e
r
r
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
th
a
t
pr
im
a
r
il
y
e
m
pha
s
iz
e
d
us
e
r
be
ha
vi
or
[
4]
,
th
is
s
tu
dy
in
c
lu
d
e
s
a
c
om
pr
e
he
n
s
iv
e
li
f
e
c
yc
le
a
na
ly
s
is
,
in
c
or
por
a
ti
ng
th
e
a
s
s
e
s
s
m
e
nt
of
gr
e
e
nhous
e
ga
s
e
m
is
s
io
ns
a
nd
th
e
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
im
pl
ic
a
ti
ons
of
ba
tt
e
r
y
l
if
e
s
pa
n.
A
ddi
ti
ona
ll
y,
th
e
e
xpl
or
a
ti
on
of
c
ir
c
ul
a
r
e
c
onomy
pr
a
c
ti
c
e
s
s
uc
h
a
s
m
odul
a
r
ba
tt
e
r
y
de
s
ig
ns
a
nd
m
a
te
r
ia
l
r
e
c
ove
r
y
th
r
ough
r
e
c
yc
li
ng
a
li
gns
w
it
h
th
e
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
nt
J
A
dv A
ppl
S
c
i
I
S
S
N
:
2252
-
8814
E
-
bi
k
e
s
unplugge
d:
e
x
pl
or
in
g t
he
e
v
ol
ut
io
n and e
nv
i
r
onm
e
nt
al
be
ne
fi
ts
…
(
V
as
upal
li
M
anoj
)
1301
obs
e
r
va
ti
ons
of
H
ua
ng
e
t
al
.
[
14]
. T
he
f
in
di
ngs
s
how
t
ha
t
r
e
gi
o
ns
of
f
e
r
in
g gove
r
nm
e
nt
s
ubs
id
ie
s
or
i
nt
e
gr
a
te
d
c
yc
li
ng i
nf
r
a
s
tr
uc
tu
r
e
a
c
hi
e
ve
a
dopt
io
n r
a
te
s
e
xc
e
e
di
ng 60 %
. F
ur
th
e
r
m
or
e
, 65
%
of
s
ur
ve
ye
d us
e
r
s
i
de
nt
if
ie
d
c
onve
ni
e
nc
e
a
nd
a
f
f
or
da
bi
li
ty
a
s
th
e
m
os
t
in
f
lu
e
nt
ia
l
f
a
c
to
r
s
dr
iv
in
g
th
e
in
te
gr
a
ti
on
a
nd
f
unc
ti
ona
l
a
dopt
io
n
of
e
-
bi
ke
s
i
n ur
ba
n pl
a
nni
ng f
r
a
m
e
w
or
ks
.
F
ig
ur
e
6.
E
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
be
ne
f
it
s
of
e
-
bi
ke
s
3.1.
I
m
p
li
c
at
io
n
s
an
d
l
im
it
at
io
n
s
T
he
s
e
f
i
ndi
ng
s
c
o
ll
e
c
ti
ve
l
y
a
ddr
e
s
s
th
e
pr
im
a
r
y
r
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
obj
e
c
t
iv
e
s
:
i)
t
o
e
x
a
m
in
e
t
he
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
a
nd
t
e
c
h
n
ol
ogi
c
a
l
e
vo
lu
ti
on
of
e
-
bi
ke
s
;
i
i)
to
a
s
s
e
s
s
th
e
ir
c
ont
r
ib
ut
io
n
t
o
s
us
t
a
in
a
bl
e
tr
a
n
s
por
t
a
ti
on
s
y
s
t
e
m
s
;
a
nd
ii
i)
to
i
de
nt
if
y
ke
y
ba
r
r
ie
r
s
to
w
id
e
s
pr
e
a
d
a
dopt
i
on.
T
h
e
e
vi
d
e
n
c
e
c
onf
ir
m
s
th
a
t
e
-
bi
k
e
s
e
f
f
e
c
ti
ve
ly
r
e
duc
e
ur
ba
n
e
nvi
r
o
nm
e
nt
a
l
bur
d
e
n
s
a
nd
pr
e
s
e
nt
a
vi
a
bl
e
a
lt
e
r
na
ti
ve
t
o
c
on
ve
nt
i
ona
l
ve
hi
c
le
s
f
or
s
hor
t
-
a
nd
m
e
di
um
-
di
s
ta
nc
e
tr
a
ve
l
.
H
ow
e
ve
r
,
c
e
r
ta
in
li
m
i
ta
ti
o
ns
s
houl
d
b
e
a
c
kn
ow
le
dge
d
.
T
h
e
e
nvi
r
o
nm
e
nt
a
l
da
t
a
a
r
e
de
r
iv
e
d
f
r
om
s
e
c
on
da
r
y
L
C
A
da
t
a
b
a
s
e
s
,
w
h
ic
h
m
a
y
di
f
f
e
r
a
c
r
os
s
r
e
gi
on
s
a
nd
pr
odu
c
ti
on
m
e
th
odol
ogi
e
s
.
I
n
a
ddi
ti
o
n,
th
e
us
e
r
s
ur
ve
y
w
a
s
c
on
duc
t
e
d
w
it
hi
n
s
e
le
c
te
d
ur
ba
n
c
e
nt
e
r
s
i
n
I
ndi
a
a
nd
m
a
y
not
f
u
ll
y
r
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
gl
oba
l
pe
r
s
pe
c
ti
v
e
s
.
T
he
s
t
udy
a
ls
o
do
e
s
not
in
c
lu
de
r
e
a
l
-
ti
m
e
e
ne
r
gy
c
o
ns
u
m
pt
io
n
da
t
a
f
r
om
e
-
bi
k
e
ope
r
a
ti
ons
,
w
hi
c
h
c
o
ul
d
e
n
ha
n
c
e
a
na
l
yt
ic
a
l
pr
e
c
is
i
on.
D
e
s
pi
te
t
he
s
e
li
m
it
a
ti
on
s
,
th
e
in
te
gr
a
ti
o
n
of
c
om
pa
r
a
ti
ve
a
na
ly
s
i
s
,
hi
s
to
r
i
c
a
l
a
nd
t
e
c
hni
c
a
l
p
e
r
s
p
e
c
ti
ve
s
,
a
nd
pol
ic
y
e
va
lu
a
ti
on
of
f
e
r
s
a
c
o
m
pr
e
h
e
n
s
iv
e
unde
r
s
t
a
ndi
ng
of
th
e
e
vol
vi
ng
e
-
bi
ke
la
nds
c
a
p
e
.
T
h
e
i
ns
i
ght
s
de
r
i
ve
d
f
r
om
th
is
s
tu
dy
a
r
e
va
l
ua
bl
e
f
or
pol
i
c
ym
a
ke
r
s
,
m
a
nuf
a
c
tu
r
e
r
s
,
a
nd
ur
ba
n
pl
a
nne
r
s
s
e
e
ki
ng
to
pr
om
ot
e
c
l
e
a
ne
r
,
e
ne
r
gy
-
e
f
f
ic
i
e
nt
tr
a
ns
por
ta
ti
on
s
y
s
te
m
s
.
T
a
bl
e
1
pr
e
s
e
nt
s
t
he
k
e
y q
ua
nt
i
ta
ti
v
e
b
e
nc
hm
a
r
k
s
a
nd c
om
pa
r
a
ti
ve
m
e
tr
i
c
s
de
r
i
ve
d f
r
om
t
he
a
n
a
ly
s
is
.
T
a
bl
e
1. Q
ua
nt
it
a
ti
ve
be
n
c
hm
a
r
ks
a
nd c
om
p
a
r
is
on
M
e
t
r
i
c
E
-
b
i
ke
(
L
i
t
hi
um
-
i
on
)
C
onve
nt
i
ona
l
v
e
hi
c
l
e
C
O
₂
e
m
i
s
s
i
ons
(
g/
km
)
15
–
25
150
–
250
G
r
e
e
nhous
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no c
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of
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s
t.
D
A
T
A
A
V
A
I
L
A
B
I
L
I
T
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D
a
ta
a
va
il
a
bi
li
ty
is
not
a
ppl
ic
a
bl
e
to
th
is
pa
pe
r
a
s
no
ne
w
d
a
ta
w
e
r
e
c
r
e
a
te
d
or
a
na
ly
z
e
d
in
th
is
s
tu
dy.
R
E
F
E
R
E
N
C
E
S
[
1]
S
. D
ha
n
da
p
a
ni
,
T
. R
a
j
a
, V
.
M
u
r
ug
a
n,
J
.
S
e
l
va
r
a
j
, a
n
d V
. R
a
t
hi
na
s
a
m
y,
“
C
o
m
p
r
e
h
e
ns
i
v
e
r
e
v
i
e
w
on e
vo
l
ut
i
o
n,
pr
og
r
e
s
s
i
on
, de
s
i
g
n,
a
nd
e
xp
l
o
r
a
t
i
o
n o
f
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
b
i
c
yc
l
e
,”
A
r
c
hi
v
e
s
of
A
ut
om
o
t
i
v
e
E
n
gi
ne
e
r
i
ng
,
vol
.
105
,
no.
3,
pp
.
5
–
4
3,
20
24
, d
oi
:
10.
14
669
/
A
M
/
19
14
92.
[
2]
P
.
R
é
r
a
t
,
D
.
M
a
r
i
nc
e
k,
a
nd
E
.
R
a
va
l
e
t
,
“
H
ow
do
e
-
bi
ke
s
c
om
pe
t
e
w
i
t
h
t
he
ot
he
r
m
ode
s
of
t
r
a
ns
por
t
?
I
nve
s
t
i
ga
t
i
ng
m
ul
t
i
pl
e
di
m
e
ns
i
ons
of
a
m
oda
l
s
hi
f
t
,”
A
ppl
i
e
d M
obi
l
i
t
i
e
s
, vol
. 10, no. 1, pp. 85
–
98, 2025, doi
:
10.1080/
23800127.2024.2332006.
[
3]
A
.
S
ut
a
r
,
K
.
R
a
ne
,
S
.
M
a
ha
m
uni
,
T
.
S
a
r
ka
r
,
M
.
B
a
ne
r
j
e
e
,
a
nd
B
.
L
.
S
w
a
m
y,
“
L
ow
-
c
os
t
,
hi
gh
s
p
e
e
d
hybr
i
d
s
ol
a
r
pow
e
r
e
d
a
ut
o
ge
a
r
e
d
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
bi
c
yc
l
e
,”
i
n
2024
I
nt
e
r
nat
i
onal
C
onf
e
r
e
nc
e
on
I
nv
e
nt
i
v
e
C
om
put
at
i
on
T
e
c
hnol
ogi
e
s
(
I
C
I
C
T
)
,
I
E
E
E
,
A
p
r
.
2024,
pp. 2126
–
2129
, doi
:
10.1109/
I
C
I
C
T
60155.2024.10544479.
[
4]
A
.
G
upt
a
,
S
.
C
hi
t
gope
ka
r
,
A
.
K
i
m
, J
. J
i
a
ng,
M
.
W
a
ng,
a
nd
C
.
G
r
a
t
t
on
i
,
“
T
he
g
r
ow
t
h
of
e
-
bi
ke
us
e
:
a
m
a
c
hi
ne
l
e
a
r
ni
ng
a
ppr
oa
c
h,”
ar
X
i
v
:
2308.02034
,
2023.
[
5]
C
.
C
ont
ò
a
nd
N
.
B
i
a
nc
hi
,
“
E
-
bi
ke
m
ot
or
dr
i
ve
:
a
r
e
vi
e
w
of
c
onf
i
gu
r
a
t
i
ons
a
nd
c
a
pa
bi
l
i
t
i
e
s
,”
E
ne
r
gi
e
s
,
vol
.
16,
no.
1,
D
e
c
.
2022,
doi
:
10.3390/
e
n16010160.
[
6]
W
. K
ont
a
r
, S
. A
hn,
a
nd A
.
H
i
c
ks
,
“
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
bi
c
yc
l
e
s
s
ha
r
i
ng:
oppor
t
uni
t
i
e
s
a
nd
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
i
m
pa
c
t
s
,”
E
nv
i
r
onm
e
nt
al
R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h:
I
nf
r
as
t
r
uc
t
ur
e
and Sus
t
ai
nabi
l
i
t
y
, vol
. 2, no. 3, S
e
p. 2022, doi
:
10.1088/
2634
-
4505/
a
c
7c
8b.
[
7]
D
.
M
a
r
i
nc
e
k
a
nd
P
.
R
é
r
a
t
,
“
E
-
bi
ke
s
:
E
xpa
ndi
ng
t
he
pr
a
c
t
i
c
e
of
c
yc
l
i
ng
?
,
”
i
n
R
out
l
e
dge
C
om
pani
on
t
o
C
y
c
l
i
ng
,
L
ondon:
R
out
l
e
dge
, 2022, pp. 263
–
271
,
doi
:
10.4324/
9781003142041
-
34.
[
8]
L
.
F
.
G
oodm
a
n
e
t
al
.
,
“
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
bi
c
yc
l
e
s
(
e
-
bi
ke
s
)
a
r
e
a
n
i
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
ngl
y
c
om
m
o
n
pe
di
a
t
r
i
c
publ
i
c
he
a
l
t
h
pr
obl
e
m
,”
Sur
ge
r
y
O
pe
n
Sc
i
e
nc
e
, vol
. 14, pp. 46
–
51, 2023, doi
:
10.1016/
j
.s
ope
n.2023.06.004.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
nt
J
A
dv A
ppl
S
c
i
I
S
S
N
:
2252
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8814
E
-
bi
k
e
s
unplugge
d:
e
x
pl
or
in
g t
he
e
v
ol
ut
io
n and e
nv
i
r
onm
e
nt
al
be
ne
fi
ts
…
(
V
as
upal
li
M
anoj
)
1303
[
9]
A
.
R
i
i
s
e
r
,
E
.
B
e
r
e
,
L
.
B
.
A
nde
r
s
e
n,
a
nd
S
.
N
or
de
nge
n,
“
E
-
c
yc
l
i
ng
a
nd
he
a
l
t
h
be
ne
f
i
t
s
:
A
s
ys
t
e
m
a
t
i
c
l
i
t
e
r
a
t
ur
e
r
e
vi
e
w
w
i
t
h
m
e
t
a
-
a
na
l
ys
e
s
,
”
F
r
ont
i
e
r
s
i
n Spor
t
s
and A
c
t
i
v
e
L
i
v
i
ng
, vol
. 4, 2022, doi
:
10.3389/
f
s
p
or
.2022.1031004.
[
10]
D
.
P
r
a
s
a
d,
R
.
S
i
ngh,
S
.
M
ukhe
r
j
e
e
,
A
.
K
um
a
r
,
K
.
K
um
a
r
,
a
nd
K
.
S
hi
t
,
“
I
oT
e
na
bl
e
d
e
-
bi
c
yc
l
e
:
a
n
e
c
of
r
i
e
ndl
y
s
ol
ut
i
on
t
o
e
a
s
e
l
oc
a
l
m
obi
l
i
t
y,”
P
r
oc
e
e
di
ngs
of
t
he
3r
d
I
nt
e
r
nat
i
onal
C
onf
e
r
e
nc
e
on
I
C
T
f
or
D
i
gi
t
al
,
Sm
ar
t
,
and
Sus
t
ai
nabl
e
D
e
v
e
l
opm
e
nt
,
I
C
I
D
SSD
2022
,
2023, doi
:
10.4108/
e
a
i
.24
-
3
-
2022.2318993.
[
11]
R
.
J
ul
i
o
a
nd
A
.
M
onz
on,
“
L
ong
t
e
r
m
a
s
s
e
s
s
m
e
nt
of
a
s
uc
c
e
s
s
f
ul
e
-
bi
ke
-
s
ha
r
i
ng
s
ys
t
e
m
.
K
e
y
dr
i
ve
r
s
a
nd
i
m
pa
c
t
on
t
r
a
ve
l
be
ha
vi
our
,”
C
as
e
St
udi
e
s
on T
r
ans
po
r
t
P
ol
i
c
y
, vol
. 10, no. 2, pp. 1299
–
1313, 2022, doi
:
10.1016/
j
.c
s
t
p.2022.04.019.
[
12]
K
.
V
.
K
um
a
r
,
K
.
S
.
Y
a
m
una
,
S
.
S
uj
i
t
ha
,
Y
.
C
.
B
ha
va
na
,
C
.
B
.
S
i
ngh,
a
nd
V
.
B
i
ndhu,
“
D
a
t
a
a
na
l
yt
i
c
s
f
or
pa
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
e
s
t
i
m
a
t
i
on
of
a
n
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
bi
c
yc
l
e
us
i
ng
I
o
T
,”
i
n
7t
h
I
nt
e
r
nat
i
onal
C
onf
e
r
e
nc
e
on
C
om
m
uni
c
at
i
on
and
E
l
e
c
t
r
oni
c
s
Sy
s
t
e
m
s
,
I
C
C
E
S
2022
-
P
r
oc
e
e
di
ngs
, 2022, pp. 506
–
511
, doi
:
10.1109/
I
C
C
E
S
54183.2022.9835883.
[
13]
N
.
T
yl
e
r
,
“
E
-
m
ot
or
c
yc
l
e
i
nnova
t
i
on,”
N
e
w
E
l
e
c
t
r
oni
c
s
,
vol
.
55,
no.
2,
pp.
16
–
18,
F
e
b.
2022,
doi
:
10.12968/
S
0047
-
9624(
22)
60076
-
2.
[
14]
Y
.
H
ua
ng,
L
.
J
i
a
ng,
H
.
C
he
n,
K
.
D
a
ve
,
a
nd
T
.
P
a
r
r
y,
“
C
om
pa
r
a
t
i
ve
l
i
f
e
c
yc
l
e
a
s
s
e
s
s
m
e
nt
of
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
bi
ke
s
f
or
c
om
m
ut
i
ng
i
n
t
he
U
K
,”
T
r
ans
po
r
t
at
i
on R
e
s
e
ar
c
h P
ar
t
D
:
T
r
an
s
por
t
and E
nv
i
r
onm
e
nt
, vol
. 105, 2
022, doi
:
10.1016/
j
.t
r
d.2022.103213.
[
15]
S
.
S
.
S
a
ye
d
a
nd
A
.
M
.
M
a
s
s
oud,
“
R
e
vi
e
w
on
s
t
a
t
e
-
of
-
t
he
-
a
r
t
uni
di
r
e
c
t
i
ona
l
non
-
i
s
ol
a
t
e
d
pow
e
r
f
a
c
t
or
c
or
r
e
c
t
i
on
c
onve
r
t
e
r
s
f
or
s
hor
t
-
/
l
ong
-
di
s
t
a
nc
e
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
ve
h
i
c
l
e
s
,”
I
E
E
E
A
c
c
e
s
s
, vol
. 10, pp. 11308
–
11340, 2022, doi
:
10.1109/
A
C
C
E
S
S
.2022.3146410.
[
16]
H
. Y
a
ng, M
.
N
. B
or
ha
n,
A
. N
a
z
r
ul
H
a
ki
m
i
I
br
a
hi
m
, a
nd F
. A
l
i
, “
T
he
D
e
t
e
r
m
i
na
nt
s
of
t
w
o
-
w
he
e
l
e
d v
e
hi
c
l
e
r
i
de
r
s
’
r
i
di
ng be
ha
vi
or
a
nd
t
he
i
r
c
ons
e
que
nc
e
s
:
a
l
i
t
e
r
a
t
ur
e
r
e
vi
e
w
,
c
onc
e
pt
ua
l
E
-
T
P
B
m
ode
l
,
a
nd
r
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
a
ge
nda
,”
I
E
E
E
A
c
c
e
s
s
,
vol
.
13,
pp. 126183
–
126201, 2025, doi
:
10.1109/
A
C
C
E
S
S
.2025.3589125.
[
17]
A
.
T
.
-
C
a
br
e
r
a
,
J
.
M
.
G
.
-
G
onz
a
l
e
z
,
a
nd
J
.
A
.
A
gua
do,
“
D
e
s
i
gn
a
nd
i
m
pl
e
m
e
nt
a
t
i
on
of
a
c
os
t
-
e
f
f
e
c
t
i
ve
w
i
r
e
l
e
s
s
c
ha
r
ge
r
f
or
a
n
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
bi
c
y
c
l
e
,”
I
E
E
E
A
c
c
e
s
s
, vol
. 9, pp. 85277
–
85288, 2021, doi
:
10.1109/
A
C
C
E
S
S
.2021.3084802.
[
18]
N
.
S
hr
e
s
t
ha
,
A
.
S
a
m
a
nt
a
,
F
.
C
.
F
i
e
t
os
a
,
a
nd
S
.
W
i
l
l
i
a
m
s
on,
“
S
t
a
t
e
-
o
f
-
t
he
-
a
r
t
w
i
r
e
l
e
s
s
c
ha
r
gi
ng
s
y
s
t
e
m
s
f
or
e
-
bi
ke
s
:
t
e
c
hnol
ogi
e
s
a
nd
a
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
ns
,”
i
n
2023
I
E
E
E
14
t
h
I
nt
e
r
nat
i
onal
C
onf
e
r
e
nc
e
on
P
ow
e
r
E
l
e
c
t
r
oni
c
s
and
D
r
i
v
e
Sy
s
t
e
m
s
(
P
E
D
S)
,
I
E
E
E
,
A
ug.
2023, pp. 1
–
6
, doi
:
10.1109/
P
E
D
S
57185.2023.10246760.
[
19]
P
.
R
.
R
e
ddy,
K
.
S
.
G
ow
da
,
S
.
C
ha
r
i
t
ha
,
a
nd
R
.
M
a
ha
l
a
k
s
hm
i
,
“
R
e
vi
e
w
a
n
d
r
e
de
s
i
gn
of
pe
da
l
e
n
e
r
gy
-
s
ol
a
r
pow
e
r
a
ugm
e
nt
e
d
hybr
i
d
bi
c
yc
l
e
,”
i
n
2020
T
hi
r
d I
nt
e
r
nat
i
onal
C
onf
e
r
e
nc
e
on
Sm
ar
t
Sy
s
t
e
m
s
and
I
nv
e
nt
i
v
e
T
e
c
hnol
ogy
(
I
C
SSI
T
)
,
I
E
E
E
,
A
ug.
2020,
pp. 376
–
380
, doi
:
10.1109/
I
C
S
S
I
T
48917.2020.9214286.
[
20]
M
.
M
i
ne
r
vi
ni
,
P
.
G
i
a
ngr
a
nde
,
F
.
C
or
t
i
,
P
.
M
a
l
i
ghe
t
t
i
,
a
nd
L
.
M
a
nt
i
one
,
“
R
e
ge
ne
r
a
t
i
ve
br
a
ki
ng
c
a
pa
bi
l
i
t
i
e
s
i
n
e
-
bi
ke
ve
hi
c
l
e
s
:
c
om
pa
r
i
s
on be
t
w
e
e
n t
w
o
dr
i
ve
a
r
c
hi
t
e
c
t
ur
e
s
,”
i
n
2024 I
E
E
E
I
nt
e
r
nat
i
onal
C
onf
e
r
e
nc
e
on
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
al
Sy
s
t
e
m
s
f
or
A
i
r
c
r
af
t
, R
ai
l
w
ay
,
Shi
p
P
r
opul
s
i
on
and
R
oad
V
e
hi
c
l
e
s
&
I
nt
e
r
nat
i
onal
T
r
an
s
por
t
at
i
on
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
on
C
onf
e
r
e
nc
e
(
E
SA
R
S
-
I
T
E
C
)
,
I
E
E
E
,
N
ov.
2024,
pp. 1
–
6
, doi
:
10.1109/
E
S
A
R
S
-
I
T
E
C
60450.2024.10819816.
[
21]
J
.
E
.
B
our
ne
,
P
.
K
e
l
l
y,
a
nd
N
.
M
ut
r
i
e
,
“
T
he
r
i
s
e
of
t
he
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
l
l
y
a
s
s
i
s
t
e
d
bi
c
yc
l
e
a
nd
t
he
i
ndi
vi
dua
l
,
s
oc
i
a
l
a
nd
e
nvi
r
onm
e
nt
a
l
i
m
pa
c
t
s
of
us
e
,”
A
dv
anc
e
s
i
n T
r
ans
po
r
t
P
ol
i
c
y
and P
l
anni
ng
, vol
. 10, pp. 27
–
64, 2022, doi
:
10.1016/
bs
.a
t
pp.2022.04.003.
[
22]
S
.
S
ha
r
m
a
,
V
.
K
he
r
,
A
.
S
i
ngh,
A
.
S
a
nga
m
,
S
.
D
ha
m
i
ni
,
a
nd
R
.
A
poor
va
,
“
D
e
s
i
gn
of
i
nnova
t
i
ve
a
nd
e
c
o
-
f
r
i
e
ndl
y
e
-
bi
c
yc
l
e
,”
2022
I
nt
e
r
nat
i
onal
C
onf
e
r
e
nc
e
on
A
dv
anc
e
s
i
n
C
om
put
i
ng,
C
om
m
uni
c
at
i
on
and
A
ppl
i
e
d
I
nf
or
m
at
i
c
s
(
A
C
C
A
I
)
,
C
he
nna
i
,
I
ndi
a
,
2022,
pp. 1
-
5,
doi
:
10.1109/
A
C
C
A
I
53970.2022.9752618.
[
23]
M
.
D
i
G
a
ngi
,
A
.
C
om
i
,
A
.
P
ol
i
m
e
ni
,
a
nd
O
.
M
.
B
e
l
c
or
e
,
“
E
-
bi
ke
us
e
i
n
ur
ba
n
c
om
m
ut
i
ng:
e
m
pi
r
i
c
a
l
e
vi
de
nc
e
f
r
om
t
he
hom
e
-
w
or
k pl
a
n,”
A
r
c
hi
v
e
s
of
T
r
an
s
por
t
, vol
. 62, no. 2, pp. 91
–
104, 2022, doi
:
10.56
04/
01.3001.0015.9568.
[
24]
K
. W
i
l
d, A
. W
oodw
a
r
d,
a
nd C
. S
ha
w
,
“
G
e
nde
r
a
nd t
he
e
bi
ke
:
e
xpl
or
i
ng t
he
r
o
l
e
of
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
bi
ke
s
i
n
i
nc
r
e
a
s
i
ng w
om
e
n’
s
a
c
c
e
s
s
t
o
c
yc
l
i
ng a
nd phys
i
c
a
l
a
c
t
i
vi
t
y,”
A
c
t
i
v
e
T
r
a
v
e
l
St
udi
e
s
, vol
. 1, no. 1, J
ul
. 2021, doi
:
10.16997/
a
t
s
.991.
[
25]
H
.
L
u,
Y
.
J
unm
i
ng,
a
nd
N
.
A
ya
,
“
T
he
i
m
pa
c
t
of
e
c
o
-
f
r
i
e
ndl
y
f
e
a
t
ur
e
s
of
e
-
bi
ke
s
on
c
ons
um
e
r
s
’
w
i
l
l
i
ngne
s
s
t
o
pa
y,”
F
i
nanc
e
&
A
c
c
ount
i
ng R
e
s
e
ar
c
h J
our
nal
, vol
. 7, no. 2, pp. 102
–
117,
M
a
r
. 2025, doi
:
10.51594/
f
a
r
j
.v7i
2.1855.
B
I
O
G
R
A
P
H
I
E
S
O
F
A
U
T
H
O
R
S
Dr.
Vasupalli
Manoj
received
his
B.Tech
degree
in
Electrical
and
Electronics
Engineering
from
JNTU,
Kakinada,
India,
in
2010.
He
then
obtaine
d
his
M.Tech
.
degree
in
Power
Systems
&
Automation
from
GITAM
University
in
2012,
and
his
Ph.D.
from
the
Department
of
Electrical
Engineering
at
Sri
Satya
Sai
University
of
Technology
and
Medical
Scienc
es,
Bhopal,
in
2023.
He
has
publishe
d
and
prese
nted
more
th
an
50
paper
s
in
variou
s
internationa
l
and
national
journals
and
confere
nces.
His
resear
ch
interests
include
power
quality
improvement,
power
system
operation
and
control,
and
po
wer
system
stability
and
analysis
.
He can be contacted at email:
manoj.v@
gmrit.edu.in.
Dr. Malleti Sreedhar
received his B
.Tech
.
degree in Instrumentation Engineering
from
Andhra
University
Visakhapatnam,
India,
in
1998.
He
then
obta
ined
his
M.Tech
.
degree
in
Industrial
Process
Instrumentation
from
Andh
ra
University
in
2002
,
and
his
Ph.D.
from
th
e
Department
of
Instrument
Technology,
Andhra
University
in
2016.
He
has
published
and
presented
20
papers
in
various
international
and
national
journal
s
and
conferences.
His
research
interests
include
biosensors
,
industri
al
instrumen
tation,
an
alytical
instrumen
tation
electrical
,
and
electronic
measurements.
He
can
be
contacted
a
t
email:
sreedhar_m@vnrvjiet.in.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
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i
,
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ol
.
14
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o.
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e
c
e
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be
r
20
25
:
1295
-
1304
1304
Dr.
Rebba
Sasidhar
received
his
B.Tech
.
degree
in
Electrical
a
nd
Electronics
Engineering
from
JNTU,
Kakinada,
India,
in
2000.
Then
he
obtaine
d
his
M.Tech
.
degree
in
Power
Electronics
from
JNTU
-
Hyderabad
in
2010,
and
the
Ph.D.
deg
ree
from
the
Department
of
Electrical
and
Electronics
Engineering
at
Sri
Venkateswara
Univ
ersity,
Tirupati,
in
2021.
He
has
published
and
presented
more
than
20
papers
in
various
in
ternational
and
national
journals
and
confere
nces.
His
resear
ch
interests
include
power
quality
improvement,
renewable
energy,
electrical
vehicles,
and
electric
d
rives.
He
can
be
contacted
at
email:
rebba@
aietta.ac.in.
Dr.
Praveen
Kumar
Yadav
Kundala
received
the
B.Tech.
in
Electrical
and
Electronics
Engineering
from
JNTU
Kakinada,
India
in
2009.
H
e
r
eceived
the
M.Tech.
in
Power
Industrial
Drives
from
BPUT,
Odisha,
India
in
2013.
He
is
currently
working
as
an
Assistant
Professor
in
Department
of
Electrical
and
Electronics
Engineering
of
LIET
Vizianagaram.
His
area
of
research
interest
includes
power
quality,
design
and
modelling
of
custom
power devi
ces. He can b
e contacted
at email
: praveen26
3@
gmail.co
m.
Mr.
Dasyam
Chandra
Mouli
received
his
Bachelor
of
Technology
degree
in
Information
Technology
in
2010
and
his
Master
of
Technology
degr
ee
in
Computer
Science
and
Engineering
in
2012
from
Jawaharlal
Nehru
Technological
Unive
rsity
(JNTU),
Kakinada,
Andhra
Pradesh,
India.
He
is
currently
pursuing
Ph.D
.
in
Computer
Science
and
Engineering
at
JNTU
Kakinada.
He
is
serving
as
an
Assistant
Professor
in
the
Department
of
Computer
Scienc
e
and
Engine
ering
at
Vignan
’s
Institute
of
Infor
mation
Tech
nology,
Visakh
apatna
m,
Andhra
Pradesh,
India.
His
research
interests
include
machine
learnin
g
and
deep
learning
.
He
can be cont
acted at em
ail: m
ouli22
7@
gmail.co
m.
Dr.
Ramana
Pilla
is
a
Professor
at
GMR
Institute
of
Technology, Rajam,
Andhra
Prade
sh,
where
he
has
been
teach
ing
for
the
past
24
year
s.
He
rece
i
ved
his
B.Tech
.
in
EEE,
M.Tech.
in
Electrical
Power
Engineering
and
Ph.D
.
in
EEE
from
JNT
UH,
Hyderabad.
He
has
published/presented
60
papers
in
international
and
national
journals/c
onferences
of
repute.
He
was
co
-
authored
15
technical
textboo
ks
with
reputed
publis
hers
like
Reem
Publi
cations
Pvt.
Ltd.,
Universities
Press
(India)
Pvt.,
S
Chand
and
Company
Limite
d.
His
research
interest
includes
state
estimation
and
controller
design
for
electr
ical
drive
s,
automatic
generation
control,
and
applicati
on
of
soft
computi
ng
techniqu
es
to
electrical
p
ower
systems
.
He
was
a
life
member
of
ISTE,
IE
(India)
and
memb
er
of
several
academic
bod
ies.
He
can
be
contacted
at email
: ramana.p
illa@
gmrit.ed
u.in.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.