Inter national J our nal of P o wer Electr onics and Dri v e System (IJPEDS) V ol. 17, No. 1, March 2026, pp. 653 ∼ 662 ISSN: 2088-8694, DOI: 10.11591/ijpeds.v17.i1.pp653-662 ❒ 653 A no v el adapti v e constant po wer optimal efciency contr ol strategy f or bidir ectional DS-LCC wir eless char ger Jiabo Y an 1,2 , Mohd J unaidi Abdul Aziz 1 , Nik Rumzi Nik Idris 1 , Mohammad Al T akr ouri 1 , T ole Sutikno 3,4 1 F aculty of Electrical Engineering, Uni v ersiti T eknologi Malaysia, Johor , Malaysia 2 Nanning Engineering T echnology Research Center for Po wer T ransmission System of Ne w Ener gy V ehicle, Colle ge of T raf c and T ransportation, Nanning Uni v ersity , Nanning, China 3 Department of Electrical Engineering, F aculty of Industrial T echnology , Uni v ersitas Ahmad Dahlan, Y ogyakarta, Indonesia 4 Embedded System and Po wer Electronics Research Group, Y ogyakarta, Indonesia Article Inf o Article history: Recei v ed Jun 4, 2025 Re vised Oct 22, 2025 Accepted Dec 11, 2025 K eyw ords: Constant-po wer Double-sided LCC Inducti v e po wer transfer Optimal ef cienc y W ireless po wer transfer ABSTRA CT This paper presents a no v el adapti v e constant po wer optimal ef cienc y control (A CPOEC) strate gy that enables ef cient constant po wer (CP) char ging in a double-sided inductor -capacitor -capacitor (DS-LCC) wireless char ger . The proposed control strate gy is b uilt upon triple-phase-shift (TPS) modulation and emplo ys a pre-computed lookup table deri v ed from of ine optimization to achie v e CP char ging with corresponding optimal ef cienc y . The CP char ger with the propos ed strate gy can eliminate switch- controlled capacitors (SCCs) in the topology . The proposed strate gy is v alidated through simulation studies, achie ving an ef cienc y range of 90.72% to 92.46%, which is also competiti v e with other adv anced CP wireless char ging systems. Compared with e xisting state-of-the-art CP wireless char ging techniques, the wireless CP char ger with the proposed A CPOEC strate gy features a simplied topology , bidirectional po wer transfer capability , and competiti v e ef cienc y performance. This is an open access article under the CC BY -SA license . Corresponding A uthor: Mohd Junaidi Abdul Aziz F aculty of Electrical Engineering, Uni v ersiti T eknologi Malaysia Balai Cerap UTM, Lengk ok Suria, 81310 Skudai, Johor , Malaysia Email: junaidi@utm.my 1. INTR ODUCTION In the domain of battery char ging, the traditional constant current (CC) char ging method remains the predominant approach [1], [2]. Ho we v er , CC char ging does not fully e xploit the a v ailable po wer capacity of the po wer source and char ger . As sho wn in Figure 1(a), the output po wer is lo w when the battery v oltage is lo w . This limitation leads to under utilization of the char ger’ s and po wer supply’ s capabilities, e xtending the o v erall char ging duration. Compared to CC char ging, constant po wer (CP) char ging maintains a consistent po wer t ransfer throughout the entire char ging process [3], as sho wn in Figure 1(b). This char ging method adjusts the output current through control strate gies in response to v ariations in battery v oltage. This C P char ging can fully utilize the a v ailable po wer capacity of the equipment, thereby accelerating the char ging process and reducing the o v erall char ging time. Moreo v er , CP char ging has been sho wn to alle viate battery de gradation issues [4], [5]. Inducti v e po wer transfer (IPT) wireless char gers are widely adopted across v arious industries, such as consumer electronics [6]–[8], biomedical implants [9]–[11], electric bik es [5], [12], [13], and electric v ehicles J ournal homepage: http://ijpeds.iaescor e .com Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
654 ❒ ISSN: 2088-8694 (EVs) [4], [14], [15], due to their adv antages including inherent safety , lo w maintenance, and high reliability . T o realize CP char ging in wireless systems, e xtensi v e research has been conducted. A common method is incorporating a DC-DC con v erte r on either the input or output side to re gulate v oltage or current [16], [17]. Ho we v er , this additional po wer con v ersion stage increases system cost, po wer losses, and o v erall comple xity . T o a v oid using an additional DC-DC con v ersion stage, se v eral single-stage CP wireless char ging solutions ha v e been proposed. F or e xample, single-stage CP wireless char gers utilizing series–series (S–S) compensation netw orks ha v e been e xplored in the literature [18]–[20]. Ho we v er , S–S compensated wireless char gers are prone to generating e xcessi v e current under the coupler misalignment condition, thereby requiring supplementary safety protection mechanisms. T o deal with this safety concern in wireless po wer transfer systems, inductor -capaci tor -capacitor (LCC) resonant compensation topologies, such as LCC-series (LCC-S) and double-sided LCC (DS-LCC), ha v e emer ged as ef fecti v e solutions. In [5], an LCC-S compensation netw ork combined with pulse-density modulation (PDM) w as emplo yed to achie v e CP operation and ef cienc y optimization. Ho we v er , this char ger lacks bidirectional po wer transfer capability , limiting its suitability for applications aligned with the Ener gy Internet paradigm. The DS-LCC compensation topology not only addresses safety concerns b ut also supports bidirectional po wer transfer . Owing to this critical adv antage, the DS-LCC topology is widely used in IPT systems and is also adopted by industry standards [21]. Ho we v er , the traditional DS-LCC wireless char ger is a kind of CC char ger only . T o enable the CP char ging function in DS-LCC wireless char gers, author in [22] proposed a DS-LCC char ger incorporating tw o switch-controlled capacitors (SCCs). Whi le this approach successfully achie v es CP char ging, the dependence on multiple SCCs introduces se v eral dra wbacks, including increased component costs and additional po wer losses. In the IPT eld, a DS-LCC wireless char ger emplo ying a triple-phase-shift (TPS) modulation strate gy w as proposed in [23]. This approach enables zero-v oltage switching (ZVS) o v er a wide operating range without the use of an y SCCs, resulting in a simplied circuit structure and high ef cienc y . Ho we v er , the system is not capable of achie ving CP char ging for batteries. This paper proposes a no v el adapti v e constant po wer optimal ef cienc y control (A CPOEC) strate gy for a DS-LCC bidirectional wireless char ger . The A CPOEC strate gy is b uilt upon triple-phase-shift (TPS) modulation and emplo ys a pre-computed lookup table deri v ed from of ine optimization to achie v e CP char ging with corresponding optimal ef cienc y . CP Charging Time CC Charging Time Power Power Battery  Voltage Charging  Current Time (b) (a) Threshold  Voltage Threshold Voltage Time Battery  Voltage Charging  Current CC Charging Time T i m e   s a v e d Figure 1. Comparison between (a) CC char ging and (b) CP char ging 2. THE WIRELESS CP CHARGER WITH THE PR OPOSED A CPOEC STRA TEGY 2.1. Char ging system structur e The topology of the bidirectional DS-LCC wireless char ging system is illustrated in Figure 2. On the primary side, an in v erter composed of four MOSFETs ( S 1 to S 4 ) is used to generate the A C v oltage, while on the secondary side, an acti v e rectier consisting of four MOSFETs ( S 5 to S 8 ) is emplo yed to con v ert the A C current into DC current. The compensation netw ork includes series inductors L 1 and L 2 , parallel capacitors C 1 and C 2 , series compensation capacitors C p and C s , and coil self-inductances L p and L s . The C O is a DC-link capacitor on the secondary side. The input DC v oltage and battery v oltage are represented by V 1 and V 2 . The in v erter’ s output v oltage and current are labeled as u ab and i L 1 , while the rectier’ s input v oltage and current are denoted by u cd and i L 2 . The mutual inductance between the couplers is indicated as M , and the coupling coef cient k is dened by k = M / p L p L s . Int J Po w Elec & Dri Syst, V ol. 17, No. 1, March 2026: 653–662 Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
Int J Po w Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694 ❒ 655 The in v erter output v oltage is denoted as u ab , and the rectier input v oltage is denoted as u cd . V ariables u p and u s represent the fundamental components of u ab and u cd , respecti v ely . The phase dif ference between u p and u s is denoted by δ . The duty c ycles of u ab and u cd are represented by D p and D s , respecti v ely . T o f acilitate the analysis and simplify t he equations, a phase shift compensation angle ∆ δ is dened as ∆ δ = δ − π 2 . The optimum phase shift ∆ δ , denoted as ∆ δ opt , ensuring that all switches in the system w ork under ZVS, according to [24], is e xpressed as (1). ∆ δ opt = − D S π 2 + cos − 1   Λ − 1 ×   − 2 π ω L 1 L 2 I ZVS + V 2 L 1 D S π 2 − 8 sin 2 ( D S π 2 ) !! (1) Where Λ = 8 M V 1 sin π 2 D p , and I ZVS is the predened threshold current required for ZVS, which is used to char ge and dischar ge the MOSFETs’ equi v alent output capacitance duri ng the dead time. Ne glecting losses in the char ger , the transferred po wer can be e xpressed as (2). P = M ω L 1 L 2 ˙ U P ˙ U S sin π 2 + ∆ δ (2) V 1 S 1 M S 3 S 2 S 4 D 5 D 6 D 7 D 8 S 7 S 8 L 1 C P C 1 L P L S C S C 2 L 2 C O i L1 u ab i L2 u cd I O V 2 + - S 5 S 6 c + d - a + b - i LP i LS Figure 2. T opology of the bidirectional DS-LCC wireless char ger 2.2. Coupling coefcient estimation In the control strate gy , the coupling coef cient needs to be estimated to achie v e the adapti v e cont rol. A coupling coef cient estimation method is de v eloped. In the estimation method, switches S 7 and S 8 are turned on to force u cd = 0 , as illustrated in Figure 3. Ignoring losses, the coupling coef cient k can be e xpressed as a function of I L 2 as (3). I L 2 = k p L p L s · U ab ω L 1 L 2 . (3) Ob viously , I L 2 is proportional to the coupling coef cient k . Therefore, if we w ant to estimate the coupling coef cient k , we can measure the current I L 2 . T o impro v e accurac y , I L 2 can be e xperimentally measured for discrete v alues of k , allo wing the creation of a lookup table that denes the relationship between I L 2 and k . This lookup table can then be utilized by the controller to estimate k based on I L 2 , as illustrated in Figure 3. I L 2 can be measured at discrete v alues of k e xperimentally , and a lookup table that maps the relationship between I L 2 and k can be b uilt. The controller can subsequent ly use this lookup table to estimate k based on the m easured I L 2 , as illustrated in Figure 3. 2.3. A CPOEC strategy f or CP char ging The A CPOEC strate gy implemented in the proposed CP char ger is illustrated in Figure 4. In this strate gy , the controller on the secondary side acquires the battery v oltage V 2 and retrie v es the optimal control v ariables under this V 2 in the lookup table. This lookup table is produced by the of ine optimization method sho wn in Figure 5, which is e xplained in the ne xt section. The optimal v ariables D s − opt and ∆ δ opt are sent to pulse generators in the secondary s ide controller as a parameter . In the meantime, the secondary controller sent optimal duty c ycle D P − opt to the primary controller by wireless communication. The optimum v ariable can mak e the wireless char ger achie v e CP char gering with corresponding optimum ef cienc y . A no vel adaptive constant power optimal ef ciency contr ol str ate gy for bidir ectional ... (Jiabo Y an) Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
656 ❒ ISSN: 2088-8694 V 1 S 1 M S 3 S 2 S 4 D 5 D 6 D 7 D 8 S 7 S 8 L 1 C P C 1 L P L S C S C 2 L 2 C O I L1 u ab I L2 u cd I O V 2 + - S 5 S 6 c + d - a + b - I LP I LS   Lookup Tab l e   for  Esti mat i n g k k I L2 Figure 3. Diagram of coupling coef cient estimation W i rel es s   Comm . V in M L 1 C P C 1 L P L S C S C 2 L 2 I O V 2 + - P has e   Sync .   & Pu l se Ge n. Lookup  Tabl e D s _ o pt P ul s e G e n. D p_ opt D p_ opt Δδ opt k Figure 4. Proposed control strate gy 2.4. Ofine optimization appr oach The optimum v ariables in the lookup table are generated by the of ine optimization approach. The goal of the optimization is to pick the optimal control v ariables that maximize ef cienc y whi le ensuring constant po wer output across a range of battery v oltages. T o get maximum ef cienc y , loss model is b uilt in this section. The total po wer los s can be separated into losses in the in v erter , losses in the resonant netw ork, and losses in the rectier . In v erter’ s losses include conduction losses and switching losses. Since all switches achie v e ZVS, the switching losses are v ery tin y and can be omitted in the o v erall po wer loss optimization [23]. The losses in the in v erter can be e xpressed as (4). P in v = 2 R ON I 2 L 1 (4) Similarly , the losses from the rectier are e xpressed as (5). P rec = 2 R ON I 2 L 2 (5) Losses in the resonant circuit are e xpressed as (6). P res = I 2 p R L 1 + I 2 s R L 2 + I 2 LP ( R LP + R C P ) + I 2 LS ( R LS + R C S ) + I 2 C 1 R C 1 + I 2 C 2 R C 2 (6) Here, R C P , R C S , R C 1 , and R C 2 refer to the equi v alent series resistances (ESRs) of the capacitors C P , C S , C 1 , and C 2 , respecti v ely . Thereby , the total losses in the char ger can be e xpressed as (7). P l = P in v + P rec + P res (7) W ith the loss model b uilt abo v e, the of ine optimization method is proposed, as illustrated in Figure 5. The process in v olv es the follo wing steps: (i) Initialization: Pro vide system parameters, lik e input v oltage V 1 , the range of coupling coef cients k min and k max , and the range of battery v oltages V 2min and V 2max , the reference Int J Po w Elec & Dri Syst, V ol. 17, No. 1, March 2026: 653–662 Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
Int J Po w Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694 ❒ 657 po wer P ref ; (ii) Discretizing coupling coef cient k : Sample the coupling coef cient k o v er its predened range using an appropriate step size; (iii) Discretizing battery v oltage V 2 : Sample the battery v oltage V 2 o v er its predened range with an appropriate step size; (i v) Control v ariable searching for CP char ging: If the calculated po wer matches the reference po wer P ref within a specied tolerance e , the corresponding control v ariables are retained. If both D P and D S already reach the maximum v alue of 1 and the transferred po wer still does not meet P ref , the combination D P = D S = 1 and the associated ∆ δ opt are preserv ed to track the maximum deli v erable po wer with optimal ef cienc y . Input  V 1 ,P r e f ,V 2 , k Search the duty  cycles   D p,  Ds   from   0   to  1(e.g. step = 0.01 ) Calculate  ∆ δ O p t   using (2)   Calculate  P  using (3) Calculate  P l   using (12) | P  - P re f | < e   (e.g.   e=   0.5   W)   or   D p,  Ds   =1,but still no result       ? Ye s No P l_ N e w   <   P l_ o l d   ? Keep  P l_ N e w   and its   relevant  variables Keep  P l _ o l d   and its   relevant  variables Ye s No Reached the exhaustive  limit? No Ye s Output the minimum  P l   and its   relevant variables  { D s _ o p t ,  ∆ δ o p t }under the  V 2 Start Input system  parameters ,     V 1 ,P r e f ,V 2 m i n ,V 2 m a x ，    k m i n , k m a x , Sample   V 2   from  V 2 m i n   to   V 2 m a x     (e.g. step = 1V ) Find the minimum  P l   and  its   relevant variables  { D p ， Ds,  ∆ δ }under the  V 2  and   k Finished sampling all  V 2  ? Find the minimum  P l    and its   relevant  variables{ D p _ o p t ,   D s _ o p t ,  ∆ δ o p t }  under all  V 2   a n d   k   condition . Output   V 2 ,     k , and  the   relevant optimal  variables{ D p _ o p t ,   D s _ o p t ,  ∆ δ o p t }  No Ye s Sample   k   from  k m i n   to   k m a x     (e.g. step = 0.0074 ) Finished sampling all  k   ? Ye s No Figure 5. Flo wchart for obtaining the optimal v ariables 3. SIMULA TION RESUL TS AND DISCUSSION 3.1. Specications The performance of the proposed wireles s char ger is v alidated through simulations conducted in MA TLAB/Simulink. The parameters are designed based on the guidelines pro vided in [1], and all details are sho wn in T able 1. 3.2. Simulation r esults under alignment condition In the simulation, the coupling coef cient is set as 0.302, and the battery v oltage is swept from 72 V to 109 V . As sho wn in Figure 6, the output po wer generally remains constant within the range of 210 W to 217 W . The system maintains e f cienc y between 90.72% and 92.46% throughout the entire cha r gi ng process. The proposed char ger deli v ers competiti v e ef cienc y performance when compared with other state-of-the-art A no vel adaptive constant power optimal ef ciency contr ol str ate gy for bidir ectional ... (Jiabo Y an) Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
658 ❒ ISSN: 2088-8694 CP wireless char ging systems, as detailed in T able 2. The wireless char ger with the proposed control strate gy can mak e sure all of the switches al w ays w ork in ZVS conditions during the char ging process. The w a v eforms of the in v erter output v oltage u ab and the corresponding output current I L 1 are presented in Figure 7(a), whil e Figure 7(b) sho ws the rectier input v oltage u cd and input current I L 2 under a battery v oltage condition of V 2 = 109 V. T able 1. P arameters of the wireless char ger V ariable Speed (rpm) Po wer (kW) V 1 Input DC v oltage 73.5 V V 2 Output battery v oltage 72 V – 109 V k Coupling coef cient 0.262 – 0.302 L P , L S T ransmitting/recei ving coil inductance 111 µH R Lp , R Ls T ransmitting/recei ving coil resistance 100 m Ω L 1 , L 2 Primary/secondary compensation inductance 35.2 µH R L 1 , R L 2 Primary/secondary inductor resistance 100 m Ω C 1 , C 2 Primary/secondary parallel capacitance 115 nF C P , C S Primary/secondary series capacitance 53.5 nF R C 1 , R C 2 Primary/secondary parallel capacitance ESR 100 m Ω R C p , R C s Primary/secondary series capacitance ESR 100 m Ω R ON MOSFET on-state resistance 100 m Ω f = ω 2 π Switching frequenc y 79 kHz I ZVS Threshold ZVS current 2 A P ref Reference po wer 230 W 7 0 7 5 8 0 8 5 9 0 9 5 1 0 0 1 0 5 1 1 0 0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0 P o u t   ( W )   P o u t   ( W )   η           ( % ) V 2 ( V ) 8 5 . 0 8 7 . 5 9 0 . 0 9 2 . 5 9 5 . 0 9 7 . 5 1 0 0 . 0 η   ( % ) V o   ( V ) Figure 6. Output po wer P o , and ef cienc y η v ersus the dif ferent battery v oltage V 2 when alignment condition T able 2. Features comparison between the pre vious single-stage CP char gers and this w ork Dif ferent w orks and published year 2020 [19] 2022 [20] 2022 [22] 2024 [5] This w ork T ype of compensation netw ork S-S S-S DS-LCC LCC-S DS-LCC No e xtra auxiliary SCC No Y es No Y es Y es Ef cienc y optimization Y es Y es No Y es Y es No lar ge current issue when misalignment No No Y es Y es Y es Bidirectional operation No Y es No No Y es No noticeable current uctuation Y es Y es Y es No Y es Constant operating frequenc y Y es No Y es Y es Y es DC to DC ef cienc y 88.8% 87.9% 91.5% 89.8% 92.46% 3.3. Discussion on misalignment condition T o kno w the performance of the wireless char ger under misalignment conditions using the proposed control strate gy , a si mulation w as conducted with the coupling coef cient reduced to 0.262. The output po wer and ef cienc y v ersus battery v oltage are illustrated in F igure 8. As observ ed, the ef cienc y remains high, Int J Po w Elec & Dri Syst, V ol. 17, No. 1, March 2026: 653–662 Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
Int J Po w Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694 ❒ 659 ranging from 91.12% to 92.45%, e v en under misaligned conditions. The output po wer is maintained between 190.42 W and 217.56 W . When the output v oltage V 2 is in the lo wer range, a drop in output po wer is observ ed. This is attrib uted to the reduced maximum po wer transfer capability of the DS -LCC char ger at lo wer coupling coef cients. Ne v ertheless, the proposed control strate gy enables the wireless char ger to ef fecti v ely track the maximum po wer point while maintaining optimal ef cienc y . When the coupler is properly designed, the v ariation of the coupling coef cient k is typically conned to a narro w range [25]. Therefore, the impact of misalignment on the output po wer of the wireless char ger is relati v ely limited. u ab I L1 ZVS u cd I L2 ZVS a b (a) u ab I L1 ZVS u cd I L2 ZVS a b (b) Figure 7. W a v eforms of (a) the in v erter’ s output v oltage u ab and current i L 1 , (b) the rectier’ s input v oltage u cd and current i L 2 when V 2 = 109 V 7 0 7 5 8 0 8 5 9 0 9 5 1 0 0 1 0 5 1 1 0 0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0 P o u t   ( W )   P o u t   ( W )   η           ( % ) V 2 ( V ) 8 5 . 0 8 7 . 5 9 0 . 0 9 2 . 5 9 5 . 0 9 7 . 5 1 0 0 . 0 η   ( % ) V o   ( V ) Figure 8. Output current I o , and ef cienc y η v ersus the dif ferent battery v oltage V 2 in simulation 4. CONCLUSION This paper proposed an adapti v e constant po wer optimal ef cienc y control (A CPOEC) strate gy for a bidirectional double-sided LCC (DS-LCC) wireless po wer transfer char ger . The proposed approach inte grates triple-phase-shift (TPS) modulation with an of ine optimization procedure and a precomputed lookup table to re gulate the cont rol v ariables, enabling constant-po wer char ging while maintaining high ef cienc y o v er a wide battery v oltage range. In addition, a coupli ng coef cient estimation method based on current measurement is introduced to allo w adapti v e control under v arying magnetic coupling conditions. By eliminating the need for switch-controlled capacitors, the proposed method simplies the circuit topology and reduces additional component losses while preserving bidirectional po wer transfer capability . Simulation results demonstrate that the wireless char ger can maintain nearly constant output po wer throughout the char ging process while achie ving high ef cienc y in the range of approximately 90–92%. Furthermore, all switching de vices operate under zero-v oltage switching conditions, which contrib utes to reduced switching losses and impro v ed o v erall A no vel adaptive constant power optimal ef ciency contr ol str ate gy for bidir ectional ... (Jiabo Y an) Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
660 ❒ ISSN: 2088-8694 system ef cienc y . The performance of the proposed strate gy w as also e v aluated under both alignment and misalignment conditions. The results indicate that the system maintains stable po wer transfer and high ef cienc y despite v ariations in the coupling coef cient, demonstrating the rob ustness of the proposed control scheme. These characteristics mak e the proposed A CPOEC-based wireless char ger a promising solution for practical inducti v e po wer transfer applications, particularly in systems requiring ef cient, bidirectional, and reliable wireless char ging. Future w ork will focus on hardw are implementation and e xperimental v alidation to further in v estig ate the practical performance and dynamic beha vior of the proposed control strate gy . FUNDING INFORMA TION The authors sincerely thank the nancial support from the Ministry of Higher Education through Uni v ersiti T eknologi Malaysia for the High-T ech Research Grant (V ote No. Q.J130000.4623.00Q21) and the Professional De v elopment Research Uni v ersity Grant (V ote No. Q.J130000.21A2.07E30). The authors also gratefully ackno wledge the support from the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Re gion Basic Research Capacity Impro v ement Project for Uni v ersities’ Y oung and Middle-aged T eachers (Project No. 2024KY1879). A UTHOR CONTRIB UTIONS ST A TEMENT This journal uses the Contrib utor Roles T axonomy (CRediT) to recognize indi vidual author contrib utions, reduce authorship disputes, and f acilitate collaboration. Name of A uthor C M So V a F o I R D O E V i Su P Fu Jiabo Y an ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Mohd Junaidi Abdul Aziz ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Nik Rumzi Nik Idris ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Mohammad Al T akrouri ✓ ✓ ✓ T ole Sutikno ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ C : C onceptualization I : I n v estig ation V i : V i sualization M : M ethodology R : R esources Su : Su pervision So : So ftw are D : D ata Curation P : P roject Administrati on V a : V a lidation O : Writing - O riginal Draft Fu : Fu nding Acquisition F o : F o rmal Analysis E : Writing - Re vie w & E diting CONFLICT OF INTEREST ST A TEMENT The authors declare that the y ha v e no kno wn competing nancial interests or personal relat ionships that could ha v e appeared to inuence the w ork reported in this paper . D A T A A V AILABILITY The data that support the ndings of this study are a v ailable from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. REFERENCES [1] S. Li, W . Li, J. Deng, T . D. Nguyen, and C. C. Mi, “ A double-sided LCC compensation netw ork and its tuning method for wireless po wer transfer , ” IEEE T r ansactions on V ehicular T ec hnolo gy , v ol. 64, no. 6, pp. 2261–2273, 2015, doi: 10.1109/TVT .2014.2347006. [2] V . B. V u, D. H. T ran, and W . Choi, “Implementation of the constant current and constant v oltage char ge of inducti v e po wer transfer systems with the double-sided LCC compensation t opology for electric v ehicle battery char ge applications, ” IEEE T r ansactions on P ower Electr onics , v ol. 33, no. 9, pp. 7398–7410, 2018, doi: 10.1109/TPEL.2017.2766605. [3] R . T anika w a and H. Le, “Constant power battery c har g er , ” W O1996037941A1, 1996, [Online]. A v ailable: https://patents.google.com/patent/W O1996037941A1. [4] Z. Huang, S. C. W ong, and C. K. Tse, “Design of a single -stage inducti v e-po wer -transfer con v erter for ef cient EV battery char ging, ” IEEE T r ansactions on V ehicular T ec hnolo gy , v ol. 66, no. 7, pp. 5808–5821, 2017, doi: 10.1109/TVT .2016.2631596. Int J Po w Elec & Dri Syst, V ol. 17, No. 1, March 2026: 653–662 Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
Int J Po w Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694 ❒ 661 [5] I. W . Iam, C. K. Choi, C. S. Lam, P . I. Mak, and R. P . Martins, “ A constant-po wer and optimal-transfer -ef cienc y wireless inducti v e po wer transfer con v erter for battery char ger , ” IEEE T r ansactions on Industrial Electr onics , v ol. 71, no. 1, pp. 450–461, 2024, doi: 10.1109/TIE.2023.3241408. [6] S. Y . R. Hui and W . C . Ho, “ A ne w generation of uni v ersal contactl ess battery char ging platform for portable consumer electronic equipment, ” PESC Recor d - IEEE Annual P ower Electr onics Specialists Confer ence , v ol. 1, pp. 638–644, 2004, doi: 10.1109/pesc.2004.1355823. [7] L. Zhou, J. T ian, S. Liu, R. Mai, L. Fu, and U. K. Mada w ala, “High-ef cienc y WPT systems for potable electronics based on DC-bias-v oltage- controlled v ariable capacitor , ” IEEE T r ansactions on Industrial Electr onics , v ol. 71, no. 5, pp. 4707–4718, 2024, doi: 10.1109/TIE.2023.3281675. [8] Y . Zhang, S. Chen, X. Li, and Y . T ang, “Design methodology of free-positioning nono v erlapping wireless char ging for consumer electronics based on antiparallel windings, ” IEEE T r ansactions on Industrial Electr onics , v ol. 69, no. 1, pp. 825–834, 2022, doi: 10.1109/TIE.2020.3048322. [9] Q. Chen, S. C. W ong, C. K. Tse, and X. Ruan, “ Analysis, design, and control of a transcutaneous po wer re gulator for articial hearts, ” IEEE T r ansactions on Biomedical Cir cuits and Systems , v ol. 3, no. 1, pp. 23–31, 2009, doi: 10.1109/TBCAS.2008.2006492. [10] A. Aldaoud et al. , “Near -eld wireless po wer transfer to stent-based biomedical implants, ” IEEE J ournal of Electr oma gnetics, RF and Micr owaves in Medicine and Biolo gy , v ol. 2, no. 3, pp. 193–200, 2018, doi: 10.1109/JERM.2018.2833386. [11] M. Machnoor and G. Lazzi, “High-ef cienc y multicoil wireless po wer and data transfer for biomedical implants and neuroprosthetics, ” Antenna and Sensor T ec hnolo gies in Modern Medical Applications , 2021, doi: 10.1002/9781119683285.ch8. [12] R. Mai, Y . Chen, Y . Zhang, N. Y ang, G. Cao, and Z. He, “Optimization of the passi v e compone nts for an S-LCC topology-based WPT system for char ging massi v e electric bic ycles, ” IEEE T r ansactions on Industrial Electr onics , v ol. 65, no. 7, pp. 5497–5508, 2018, doi: 10.1109/TIE.2017.2779437. [13] A. T ri vi ˜ no-Cabrera, J. M. Gonzalez-Gonzalez, and J. A. Aguado, “Design and implementation of a cost-ef fecti v e wireless char ger for an electric bic ycle, ” IEEE Access , v ol. 9, pp. 85277–85288, 2021, doi: 10.1109/A CCESS.2021.3084802. [14] Z. Bi, T . Kan, C. C. Mi, Y . Zhang, Z. Zhao, and G. A. K eoleian, “ A re vie w of wireless po wer transfer for electric v ehicles: prospects to enhance sustainable mobility , ” Applied Ener gy , v ol. 179, pp. 413–425, 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.apener gy .2016.07.003. [15] H. Zhang, F . Lu, and C. Mi, “ An electric roadw ay system le v eraging dynamic capaciti v e wireless char ging: furthering the continuous char ging of electric v ehicles, ” IEEE Electrication Ma gazine , v ol. 8, no. 2, pp. 52–60, 2020, doi: 10.1109/MELE.2020.2985486. [16] X. Dai, X. Li, Y . Li, and A. P . Hu, “Maximum ef cienc y tracking for wireless po wer transfer systems with dynamic coupling coef cient estimation, ” IEEE T r ansactions on P ower Electr onics , v ol. 33, no. 6, 2018, doi: 10.1109/TPEL.2017.2729083. [17] Y . Liu and H. Feng, “Maximum ef cienc y tracking c ontrol method for WPT system based on dynamic coupling coef cient identication and impedance matching netw ork, ” IEEE J ournal of Emer ging and Selected T opics in P ower Electr onics , v ol. 8, no. 4, pp. 3633–3643, 2020, doi: 10.1109/JESTPE.2019.2935219. [18] H. Zhu, B. Zhang, and L. W u, “Output po wer stabilization for wireless po wer transfer system emplo ying primary-side-only control, ” IEEE Access , v ol. 8, pp. 63735–63747, 2020, doi: 10.1109/A CCESS.2020.2983465. [19] Z. Huang, C. S. Lam, P . I. Mak, R. P . D. S. Martins, S. C. W ong, and C. K. Tse, “ A single-stage inducti v e-po wer -transfer con v erter for constant-po wer and maximum-ef cienc y battery char ging, ” IEEE T r ansactions on P ower Electr onics , v ol. 35, no. 9, pp. 8973–8984, 2020, doi: 10.1109/TPEL.2020.2969685. [20] F . Xu, S. C. W ong, and C. K. Tse, “Ov erall loss compensation and optimization control in single-stage inducti v e po wer transfer con v erter deli v ering constant po wer , ” IEEE T r ansactions on P ower Electr onics , v ol. 37, no. 1, pp. 1146–1158, 2022, doi: 10.1109/TPEL.2021.3098914. [21] C hina Electricity Council, GB/T 38775.6-2021: Electric vehicle wir eless power tr ansfer – P art 6: Inter oper ability r equir ements and testing – Gr ound side . China, 2021. [Online]. A v ailable: https://www .chinesestandard.net/PDF .aspx/GBT38775.6-2021?English GB/T 38775.6-2021. [22] Z. Luo, Y . Zhao, M. Xiong, X. W ei, and H. Dai, “ A self-tuning LCC/LCC system based on switch-controlled capacitors for constant-po wer wireless electric v ehicle char ging, ” IEEE T r ansactions on Industrial Electr onics , v ol. 70, no. 1, pp. 709–720, 2023, doi: 10.1109/TIE.2022.3153812. [23] X. Zhang et al. , “ A control strate gy for ef cienc y optimization and wide ZVS operation range in bidirectional inducti v e po wer transfer system, ” IEEE T r ansactions on Industrial Electr onics , v ol. 66, no. 8, pp. 5958–5969, 2019, doi: 10.1109/TIE.2018.2871794. [24] G. Zhu, J. Dong, G. Y u, W . Shi, C. Riek erk, and P . Bauer , “Optimal multi v ariable control for wide output re gulation and full-range ef cienc y optimization in LCC-LCC compensated wireless po wer transfer systems, ” IEEE T r ansactions on P ower Electr onics , v ol. 39, no. 9, pp. 11834–11848, 2024, doi: 10.1109/TPEL.2024.3414157. [25] M. Budhia, G. A. Co vic, and J. T . Bo ys, “Design and optimization of circular magnetic structures for lumped inducti v e po wer transfer systems, ” IEEE T r ansactions on P ower Electr onics , v ol. 26, no. 11, pp. 3096–3108, 2011, doi: 10.1109/TPEL.2011.2143730. BIOGRAPHIES OF A UTHORS Jiabo Y an recei v ed the M.Sc. de gree in transportation engineering from Nanjing Uni v ersity of Aeronautics and Ast ronautics (NU AA), China, in 2019. He is currently pursuing the Ph.D. de gree in electrical engineering with Uni v ersiti T eknologi Malaysia (UTM). Since 2022, he has been with the Colle ge of T raf c and T ransportati on, Nanning Uni v ersity , Nanning, China, where he is currently a lecturer . His current research interests include po wer electronics, electric v ehicles, and wireless po wer transfer . He can be contacted at email: felixyan8051@foxmail.com. A no vel adaptive constant power optimal ef ciency contr ol str ate gy for bidir ectional ... (Jiabo Y an) Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
662 ❒ ISSN: 2088-8694 Mohd J unaidi Abdul Aziz w as born in K uala T erengg anu, Malaysia, in 1979. He recei v ed the B.S. and M.S. de gre es in electrical engineering from Uni v ersiti T eknologi Malaysia (UTM), K uala Lumpur , Malaysia, in 2000 and 2002, re specti v ely , and the Ph.D. de gree in electrical engineering from the Uni v ersity of Nottingham, Nottingham, England, U.K., in 2008. Si nce 2008, he has been with the F aculty of Electrical Engineering, UTM, where he is currently an associate professor and head of Po wer Electronics and Dri v e Research Group (PEDG). His current res earch interests include po wer electronics and electric v ehicles, wi th a specia l focus on battery managem ent systems. He can be contacted at email: junaidi@utm.my . Nik Rumz i Nik Idris recei v ed the B.Eng. de gree in electrical engineering from the Uni v ersity of W ollongong, Austral ia, in 1989, the M.Sc. de gree in po wer electronics from Bradford Uni v ersity , U.K., in 1993, and the Ph.D. de gree from Uni v ersiti T eknologi Malaysia (UTM), in 2000. He is currently a professor with the F aculty of Electrical Engineering, UTM, and an associate editor of IEEE T ransactions on Po wer Electronics. Pre viously , he chaired t he IEEE Po wer Electronics Malaysia Chapter (2014–2016). His research interests include A C dri v e systems and DSP applications in po wer electronics. He can be contacted at email: nikrumzi@fk e.utm.my . Mohammad Al T akr ouri w as born in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, on M ay 1995. He recei v ed a bachelor’ s de gree in electrical engineering from Al-Ahliyya Amman Uni v ersity , Amman. Later in 2020, he obtained his graduate de gree in electrical engineering (cum laude) from Politecnico di Milano uni v ersity , Italy . He is c urrently w orking to w ards his Ph.D. in Uni v ersiti T eknologi Malaysia on ener gy management strate gies and control for h ybrid ener gy storage systems. He can be contacted at email: takrouri.moh@graduate.utm.my . T ole Sutikno is a lecturer and the Head of the master’ s program of Electrical Enginee ring at the F aculty of Industrial T echnology at Uni v ersitas Ahmad Dahlan (U AD) in Y ogyakarta, Indonesia. He recei v ed his Bachelor of Engineering from Uni v ersitas Dipone goro in 1999, Master of Engineering from Uni v ersitas Gadj ah Mada in 2004, and Doctor of Philosoph y in Electrical Engineering from Uni v ersiti T eknologi Malaysia in 2016. All three de grees are in Electrical Engineering. He has been a Professor at U AD in Y ogyakarta, Indonesia, since July 2023, follo wing his tenure as an associate professor in June 2008. He is the Editor -in-Chie f of TELK OMNIKA and head of the Embedded Systems and Po wer Electronics Research Group (ESPERG). He is one of the top 2% of re searchers w orldwide, according to Stanford Uni v ersity and Else vier BV’ s list of the most inuential scientists from 2021 to the present. His research interests co v er digital design, industrial applications, industrial electronics, industrial informatics, po wer electronics, motor dri v es, rene w able ener gy , FPGA applications, embedded systems, articial intelligence, intelligent control, digital libraries, and information technology . He can be contacted at email: tole@te.uad.ac.id. Int J Po w Elec & Dri Syst, V ol. 17, No. 1, March 2026: 653–662 Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.